Abstract
1. Introduction
Diamond has an extraordinary combination of outstanding characteristics, making it an 'extreme' material highly desirable for various applications. Due to its well-known mechanical properties, in particular hardness, it is extensively used as an abrasive and tooling material in a wide variety of industrial applications, including indenters, grinding, cutting, drilling, polishing, honing, sharpening, lapping, sanding, and wire drawing tools, usually in high-stress conditions. Additionally, they are responsible for the ability of diamond anvil cells with diamond compacts for high-pressure, high-temperature research[
Despite its outstanding features for electronics and photonic devices, considerable improvements are still anticipated since its present level is far lower. Its operation lifespan is far shorter than projected, and it has remained at the fundamental research level for decades. Additionally, reproducible and large-scale manufacture of diamond crystals continues to be a challenge[
2. Diamond electronic devices and nano- or micro-electromechanical systems
Diamond is an enthralling semiconductor with extraordinary physical features, including ultrawide bandgap (5.47 eV), ultra-high thermal conductivity (2200 W/(m·K))[
2.1. Diamond diodes
The most often used semiconductor diode is a crystalline semiconductor material coupled to two electrical terminals through a p–n junction. For high-power and microwave switching, diodes serve as the basic structure, and they also serve as the building blocks for three-terminal devices. Both unipolar and bipolar diodes have been experimentally demonstrated, including p-type-intrinsic-n-type (p–i–n) diodes, Schottky barrier diode (SBD)[
Figure 1.(Color online) Representative diamond devices. (a, b) A picture and schematic of a diamond SBD[
2.2. Field-effect transistors
Diamond has been investigated in the exploitation of prototype field-effect transistors (FETs). At the moment, several designs for power electronics applications which is suitable to high temperature and radiation settings are being investigated. Lee et al.[
2.3. Diamond nano- or micro-electromechanical systems
NEMS/MEMS have attracted interest in various applications, including accelerometers, physical, biological, and chemical sensors. Diamond has demonstrated itself as an ideal candidate for developing robust, high-reliable, and long-endurance NEMS/MEMS in harsh environments due to its excellent physical, chemical, electrical, and tribomechanical characteristics[
Additionally, theoretical proposals and fundamental experiments to mechanically couple NEMS/MEMS devices to intrinsic quantum two-level systems can be achieved in a diamond nano-mechanical resonator of embedded nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers[
2.4. Microfabrication techniques of diamond devices
Fabrication of diamond devices and NEMS/MEMS is often challenging, in particular for single-crystalline diamond (SCD), since they can only be from homoepitaxially/heteroepitaxial growth on previously grown SCD or other substrates. As a result, the accessible SCD templates are just a few tens of millimeters square. Manufacturing diamond devices and NEMS/MEMS typically begins with the fabrication of a diamond thin film or membrane, which is then followed by the assembly of the devices. Methods have been investigated that include the “thin down” technique, the liftoff method, the angle-etching procedure, and focused ion beam milling[
The “thin down” technique begins with a bulk diamond with a thickness of tens of microns. It is subsequently thinned down to a thickness of a few hundred nanometers through dry etching by capacitively coupled reactive ion etching (RIE)[
3. Challenges on scalable diamond devices
For mass production of industrial semiconductor devices, semiconductor materials are required to achieve high purity, low defect density, high carrier concentration and mobility, and large area wafer. However, doping and fabrication of high-quality large-area SCD wafers are still worldwide scientific problems for diamond materials. The tremendous potential for realizing diamond devices above present device technology is contingent upon achieving several key objectives, including the synthesis of ultrahigh purity, high-quality wafer-scale SCDs, and the ability to provide carriers via controlled doping.
3.1. Growth of large-area single-crystalline diamond wafers
Although commercially accessible high-quality polycrystalline diamond has many attributes comparable to the finest natural diamonds, grain boundaries can still impact its electronic performances due to the crystal defect nature and existence of various impurities such as nitrogen, silicon, and others[
For the past 70 years, synthetic SCDs have been manufactured using high-pressure, high-temperature (HPHT) processes[
Numerous approaches to large-area SCD wafer (Figs. 2(a)–2(c)) synthesis reach 50 mm in diameter. In homoepitaxy, single crystals, such as those obtained by the HPHT method, are utilized as seeds and are replicated namely "mosaic" wafer. Among the numerous techniques for CVD diamond, microwave plasma CVD has attracted significant attention owing to its ability to combine high purity with rapid growth rates (>100μm/h)[
Figure 2.(Color online) Synthetic diamonds. (a) Microwave plasma-assisted CVD growth of SCD over 70 large 3.5 × 3.5 mm2 HPHT seed crystals[
In heteroepitaxy, the substrate is critical for the SCD's properties: easy acquisition of high-quality and large-size substrates, the substrate's lattice mismatch with diamond to reduce misfit dislocations at the interface, excellent thermal expansion coefficient matching with diamond to reduce thermal stress, carbon's solubility in the substrate, and the interaction with C atoms (specifically, its inclination to produce stable carbides) all affect the nucleation and growth of diamond. c-BN[
Nevertheless, due to the scarcity of single-crystalline Ir substrates, Ir multilayer substrates (such as Ir/MgO[
3.2. Doping of diamond
Several issues should be fixed to fully use diamond's electrical capabilities before this material can be used largely. The primary impediment[
3.2.1. p-type diamond
Boron, one less electron than carbon, is very easy to integrate into diamond due to its tiny atomic radius[
3.2.2. n-type diamond
On the other hand, n-type diamond does not occur naturally, and it is challenging to acquire n-type semiconducting diamond with high quality. Since the early 1980s, when the CVD method for the growth of diamond was developed, n-type doping has been studied. Based on the conventional dopants used in Si, it is anticipated that group V (N, P) and VI (S) elements in diamond are promising donor impurities. Nitrogen (with its extra electron compared to C) is the most common impurity in an n-type diamond. Nitrogen exists in diamonds in alternative ways, and substitutional nitrogen easily enters the diamond lattice, which fits in with its negative formation energy (–3.4 eV)[
The poor phosphorus incorporation efficiency is still a serious obstacle, although Ohtani et al.[
4. Elastic strain engineering of diamond
Elastic strain engineering (ESE) can bring materials with unique characteristics by applying considerable mechanical stress or strain[
4.1. Elastic deformation of diamond
In past decades, the mechanical properties of diamond have been investigated using various techniques such as indentation[
Figure 3.(Color online) Elastic strain engineering of diamond. (a–c) Schematic of the "push-to-bend" deformation of the nanoscale diamond needle with maximum deformation just before fracture, corresponding FEM simulation reproducing the geometry of the bending and displaying the local elastic maximum principal strain[
4.2. Uniform tensile elastic straining of diamond
With the improved microfabrication techniques, as shown in Fig. 3(e), single-crystalline diamond bridge structures can be precisely microfabricated by FIB-assist processes, and a uniaxial tensile test can be realized for such smooth diamond specimens by using a nanoindenter with a customized tensile diamond gripper[
4.3. Tuning electronic properties of strained diamonds
The experimental discoveries have established that the diamond can be elastically deformed up to its theoretical strain limits. These advances offer possibilities to explore its functional performances by elastic strain engineering. A surprising atomistic ductility and electronic conductivity were revealed in diamonds under complex loading conditions of large concurrent shear and compressive strains by density functional theory (DFT) calculation[
5. Conclusions and perspectives
With the increasing need for wide bandgap semiconductors, the arrival of 5G and even future 6G networks, and the demand for power electronics chips for electric vehicles, diamond has become an ideal electronic material for such critical applications. Here, we can only briefly cover a few efforts on diamond-based high voltage switching diodes, high-power high-frequency FET, devices operating at high temperatures, and MEMS/NEMS. Although diamond offers enormous potential, it also has several characteristics that pose difficulties. We then described the production issues, including the wafer-scale production of electronics-grade high-quality diamonds. Significant progress has been made on high-quality CVD diamond thin films with a 4-inch diameter[
We also described the shallow doping problems in diamonds for realizing diamond microelectronics applications. The growth and application of p-type diamonds with boron-doping are considerably mature. Ion implantation or CVD may be used to precisely control the impurity level and carrier transport performance. The absence of effective and practical n-type conductive diamond materials, on the other hand, restricts the use of diamond semiconductor materials in the electronic field. In general, there are still great difficulties in the synthesis of low-resistivity n-type diamond films. It deserves further investigation into improving doping technology, increasing electron mobility, and reducing resistivity in the fabrication of n-type diamond semiconductors. We then proposed an alternative way, “elastic strain engineering”, to modulate a diamond’s electronic properties, which was considered impossible due to its inherent mechanical characteristics. Now with the development of microfabrication techniques, ultralarge elastic strains can be well realized in diamond micro/nanostructures[
Additionally, as diamond is also a popular quantum material[
Nevertheless, grand challenges remain in permitting diamond microelectronics and optoelectronics to the industry level. For example, establishing the planar processing of diamond for high-efficiency and reproducible large-scale manufacturing would be the primary challenge for building individual components of integrated circuit chips. Besides, maintaining the robust, highly strained diamond for an extended length of time with accurate bandgap control and characterization would be another challenge. A lattice mismatch of diamond films grown on different heterogeneous substrates could be a possible way to realize certain “strained diamond” devices and ultimately incorporate them into large-scale productions, but deep ESE requires some fundamentally new strategies and manufacturing processes for practical implementation of strained diamond architectures. This exciting field is currently undergoing rapid development and definitely needs joint efforts from multi-disciplinary researchers and industrial experts.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge the support from the Research Grants Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Grant RFS2021-1S05), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 11922215). H.Z. acknowledges the funding from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant 11902200) and the Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality (Grant 19YF1433600).
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