Abstract
1. Introduction
Over the past few decades, the mainstream of integrated circuit (IC) industry has been mainly powered by Moore’s Law, which is targeted at achieving faster operation speed, less power dissipation, and lower cost[
Figure 1.(Color online) (a) Number and size of transistors bought per dollar. Source: The end of Moore’s law. The Economist, April, 2015. (b) The ITRS most recent report predicts transistor scaling will end in 2021. Source: International Semiconductor Technology Roadmap (ITRS).
In fact, Moore’s Law is a techno-economic model that has enabled the information technology industry to double the performance and functionality of digital electronics roughly every two years within a fixed cost, power, and area[
Figure 2.(Color online) (a) The development trend of the semiconductor industry in the More-than-Moore Era. Source: International Semiconductor Technology Roadmap (ITRS). (b) Silicon photonics 2015–2024 market forecast. Source: Silicon Photonics Report Yole Développement.
Silicon photonics have been widely investigated in recent years, which benefits from academic research efforts and available commercial complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS) process for potential mass-production applications[
Particularly, photonic crystal nanobeam cavity (PCNC) is considered as an ideal platform for on-chip integration, due to the advantages of an ultracompact footprint, enhanced light–matter interactions, high integrability with optical waveguides/circuits, and compatibility with CMOS processes[
2. On-chip PCNC devices for lasing
Photonic crystal lasers, with large Q/V, have enhanced photon emission below threshold through the Purcell effect, and can operate at a higher modulation speed[
Figure 3.(Color online) A summary of PCNC lasers (2010–2018). Insets show the device structures, materials, and threshold power, respectively.
For example, Lee et al. demonstrated an ultracompact nanobeam laser by effectively integrating a wavelength-scale unidirectional III−V materials onto a SOI waveguide[
Figure 4.(Color online) (a) Schematic and (b) SEM of the proposed hybrid III−V/Si nanolaser attached to a conventional silicon-on-insulator (SOI) waveguide. (c) Measured output power near the end of the SOI waveguide (black) and near the InGaAsP nanobeam (red) against incident peak pump power. The inset shows a lasing emission spectrum near 1550 nm.
Monolayer transition-metal dichalcogenides (TMDs) exhibit great potential to be the smallest and efficient optical gain media for low energy-consumption nanolasers due to its strong excitonic emission[
Figure 5.(Color online) (a) Schematic of the proposed room temperature, suspended silicon nanobeam laser with a monolayer MoTe2 on top. The corresponding lasing spectra of the nanobeam laser under different pump power levels (b) using a grating resolution: 150 g/mm (0.41 nm), and (c) using a grating resolution: 600 g/mm (0.09 nm).
3. On-chip PCNC devices for modulation
Silicon photonics technology is poised to resolve short reach interconnects, and optical modulators are essential for such an interconnect. In addition, Pockels effect[
Several parameters have been used to characterize the performance of EO modulator: footprint, modulation voltage, modulation speed, extinction ratio, and energy consumption. So far, various silicon hybrid EO modulators have been achieved. But for waveguide-based modulators, they have large footprints and high-power consumptions due to the interaction lengths about several tens of micrometers[
We can find that many works based on the combination of PCNC and new materials have been reported[
4. On-chip PCNC devices for switching/filting
Optical switch is widely used in optical communication[
PCNCs are increasingly gaining interest in optical switch due to the advantages of high Q/V. Therefore, it could be an effective method in realizing low power-consumption optical switches. For comparison, Table 2 summarizes the performances of some PCNC-based optical switches. For thermo-optic (TO) switch, Su et al. proposed and experimentally demonstrated a 2 × 2 TO crossbar switch based on dual-PCNCs[
With the advancement of photonic integration technology, the filters have drawn much attention due to highly energy-efficient tunability[
Figure 6.(Color online) (a) Schematic of the proposed TO tunable nanobeam filter. (b) SEM image of the fabricated PCNC filter. (c) Measured wavelength shifts against heating powers.
5. On-chip PCNC devices for label-free sensing
Ultra-sensitive and label-free detection of the analyte plays an important part in the field of homeland security, environment protection and medical diagnostics[
Hence, most research has focused on the optimization of PCNCs design to improve sensitivity, as shown in Table 3. With the rapid development of technology, micro-nano devices are moving towards high miniaturization and integration. Much research has been proposed for label-free sensing by integrating microfluidics with PCNCs. For instance, Yang et al. presented a nanoslotted parallel quadrabeam photonic crystal cavity sensor, with high sensitivity of 451 nm/RIU and high-Q of 7015 in aqueous environments at wavelength of 1550 nm[
Figure 7.(Color online) (a) SEM image of the proposed parallel quadrabeam PCNCs. (b) Real-time monitoring of streptavidin/biotin binding. Inset: resonance shift as a function of streptavidin concentration in PBS. (c) Resonance shifts as a function of the refractive indices with different concentrations ethanol/water solutions. (d) SEM of nanoscale sensor array. (e) Red shift of the targeted resonator occurs because of the higher refractive index of the CaCl2 solution. (f) Experimental data showing the redshifts for various refractive index solutions.
In conclusion, with the rapid development of silicon photonics devices, higher integration, and miniaturization are required. Among these, PCNCs are considered as candidates for on-chip label-free sensing and multiple channel sensing, due to the advantages of an ultra-small footprint, ultrahigh Q/V, and excellent CMOS compatibility properties[
6. Summary
To be implemented in practice, technical challenges are existed in manufacturing. The silicon photonics chip can be fabricated cost-effectively with CMOS-compatible technology. However, the fabrication tolerance limits the practical applications of PCNCs, which makes them impractical for high-yield production. Fabrication tolerance in the position and size of the PhC structures may result in fluctuations of resonance wavelength and Q factor[
In this paper, we review recent advances on photonics devices for lasers, modulators, switches/filters, and sensors based on PCNCs. It has been shown that PCNCs with ultrahigh Q/V, ultrasmall footprint are an idea platform for the monolithic integration and extending the capability of these optical devices, in which the key is that the PCNCs can greatly improve light-matter interaction. The optical devices show good characteristics and high-volume production, which are expected to benefit large-scale photonic-integrated circuits on silicon in the near future. Furthermore, photonic integration should not be required to surpass electronic integration, but its unique advantages should be used as a supplement to electronic integration to solve problems that electronic integration cannot solve in the More-than-Moore era.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China (Grant No. 2016YFA0301302 and No. 2018YFB2200401), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 11974058, 11825402, 11654003, 61435001), Beijing Academy of Quantum Information Sciences (Grant No. Y18G20), Key R&D Program of Guangdong Province (Grant No. 2018B030329001), Beijing Nova Program (Grant No. Z201100006820125) from Beijing Municipal Science and Technology Commission, Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (Grant No. 2018XKJC05) and the High Performance Computing Platform of Peking University.
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