Fig. 1. Schematics of EPE. (a) Composition diagram of EPE^[1], The IEEE copyright line (©2023 IEEE), reprinted with permission, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; (b) the changes in the distribution of EPE budget components with the iteration of logic node^[1,3]; (c) EPE budget control approaches for the 5 nm logic node^[5], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018 SPIE

Fig. 2. Diagram of the architecture for holistic patterning^[5], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018 SPIE

Fig. 3. Schematic of EUV imaging system with compensation^[14], reprinted with permission, © Optical Society of America (or Optica Publishing Group, as applicable)

Fig. 4. Diagrams of the mask topography^[18] (adapted with permission, Copyright 2016 SPIE, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.). (a) 1.35NA DUV immersion lithography at 193 nm wavelength; (b) 0.33NA EUV lithography at 13.5 nm wavelength

Fig. 5. Contribution of each physical effect on EUV OPC model error and the rule-based OPC. (a) Contribution of each physical effect on EUV OPC model error (10 nm node OPC modeling)^[22]; (b) typically four rule-based OPC approaches^[12]

Fig. 6. Resists for EUV lithography. (a) Three main approaches to controlling stochastics^[55]; (b) the factors of affecting LER formation^[56]; (c) schematic representation of the relationship between resolution, line edge roughness, and sensitivity in CAR (the RLS triangle); (d) depiction of the multivariate Poisson propagation model (MPPM) model flow for CAR^[60], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018 SPIE, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.

Fig. 7. Definition, calculation, and optimization flow of EPE^[5], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018 SPIE. (a) Definition of EPE; (b) diagram of the calculation of EPE from various CD and overlay metrology inputs; (c) EPE optimization flow (five-step iterative process)

Fig. 8. Geometry of a generic line, space, and mandrel pattern modified by an orthogonal cut feature (with stochastic parameters)^[63], adapted with permission, Copyright 2023 SPIE

Fig. 9. Schematics of CD metrology method. (a) CD-AFM^[86], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2020 SPIE, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; (b) multichannel OCD^[94] (including normal incidence, oblique illumination, and collection channels), reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021 SPIE; (c) CD-SAXS geometry^[74], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2017 SPIE, permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.; (d) experimental setup of reflection-mode Fresnel ptychography^[105], reprinted with permission, © Optical Society of America (or Optica Publishing Group, as applicable)

Fig. 10. Overlay control schemes and optimization flow. (a) Schematic of the high spatial frequent overlay control scheme^[109], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2022 SPIE; (b) overlay optimization flow^[5], reprinted with permission, Copyright 2018 SPIE

Fig. 11. Schematics of overlay metrology method. DBO method^[124]: (a) single wavelength, (b) multi-wavelength overlay extraction, (c) the left image shows that the target asymmetry only affects the offset in A⁺/A^-, and the right image shows that the target asymmetry affects the offset and slope in A⁺/A^-, reprinted with permission, Copyright 2021 SPIE; (d) μDBO and (e) cDBO^[129], adapted with permission, Copyright 2021 SPIE; (f) schematic of CD-SAXS overlay metrology and the cross-sectional view of the overlay target grating^[97], reprinted with permission, ©Optical Society of America (or Optica Publishing Group, as applicable)