Author Affiliations
11. Key Laboratory of Transparent Opto-Functional Inorganic Materials, Shanghai Institute of Ceramics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201899, China22. School of Materials Science and Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, Chinashow less
1. Scintillation mechanism of activator doped inorganic scintillators in terms of energy band structure
[14] 2. History (1940-2017) of first publication of scintillators with light output of >20000 ph/MeV, representing scintillators published in peer-reviewed articles
[18] 3. Schematic of Gd
2O
2S structure
[41] 4. FE-SEM images of different powder
[52] 5. SEM images of GOS:Tb phosphors synthesized by the flux method
[53] 6. Structure diagrams of precursor La
2(OH)
4SO
4·
nH
2O and calcined products in different atmospheres
[63] 7. Fluorescence spectra of GOS:Tb powders under different accelerating voltages and electron beam currents
[70] 8. Total transmittance curves of GOS ceramics (thickness 1.6 mm) prepared by hot pressing
[72] 9. FESEM images of the fracture surfaces and EDS analysis
[58] 10. Microstructures of GOS ceramics prepared by pressureless sintering under different conditions
[78] 11. Pulse height spectra (a) of GOS:Pr, Ce, F ceramics with different thicknesses prepared by pressureless sintering and commercial GOS ceramics, and afterglow curve (b) of GOS:Pr,Ce,F ceramics by pressureless sintering and commercial ceramics
[79] 12. Influence of annealing temperature on the afterglow performance of GOS: Pr ceramics
[75] 13. Schematic diagram of neutron imaging
[95] 14. Principle diagram of X-CT imaging system
[29] 15. Gemstone scintillator material and detector module for Discovery CT750 HD
[114] 16. Photo of GOS:Pr,Ce,F scintillation ceramics prepared in Toshiba
[116] 17. Afterglow (a) and X-ray absorption efficiency (b) curves of German Siemens GOS (UFC ) scintillation ceramics
[117] Scintillator | Density/(g·cm-3)
| Zeff/cm
| Decay time/ns | λem/nm
| Light yield/(×103, ph/MeV)
| Ref. |
---|
NaI:Tl | 3.67 | 50.8 | 230 | 415 | 43 | [23] | LaI:Ce | 5.6 | 54.2 | 1-2 | 452, 502 | 0.2-0.3 | [24] | SrI2:Eu
| 4.55 | 49.85 | 1200 | 435 | 115 | [25] | BaBrI:Eu | 5.21 | 51.1 | 331-714 | 413 | 89 | [26] | Bi4Ge3O12 | 7.13 | 75.2 | 300 | 505 | 8.2 | [27] | PbWO4 | 8.28 | 75.6 | 6 | 420 | 0.1 | [28] | CaWO4 | 6.1 | 63.8 | 600 | 430 | 20 | [22] | Gd2O2S:Pr,Ce,F
| 7.34 | 61.1 | 4000 | 510 | 35 | [16] | YAlO3:Ce
| 5.5 | 33.6 | 30 | 350 | 21 | [29] | Y3Al5O12:Pr
| 4.56 | 32.6 | 23.4 | 310, 380 | 9.25 | [16] | Gd2SiO5:Ce
| 6.71 | 59.4 | 60-600 | 430 | 12.5 | [16] | Y2SiO5:Pr
| 4.45 | 35 | 6.5-33 | 270, 35 | 4.58 | [30] | Gd3Al2Ga3O12:Ce
| 6.67 | 50.6 | 80-800 | 520 | 46 | [31] | (Gd,Y)3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce
| 5.8 | 45 | 100-600 | 560 | 60 | [32] |
|
Table 1. Optical and scintillation properties of selected scintillators
Property | Feature |
---|
Molecular formula | Gd2O2S
| Relative molecular mass | 378 | Crystal structure | Hexagonal crystal system | Cell parameters | a=0.38514 nm, c/a=1.73
| Melting point | 2070 ℃ | Density | 7.34 g/cm3 | Zeff | 61.1 | Index of refraction | 2.2 | Band gap | 4.6-4.8 eV | Phonon energy | 520 cm-1 | Color | Colorless | Technical aspects | Chemical stability |
|
Table 2. Basic physical and chemical property of Gd
2O
2S
[41,42] Scintillators | λem/nm
| Decay time/μs | Afterglow/(%, after 3 ms/100 ms) | Light yield/(ph·MeV-1)
| Ref. |
---|
Gd2O2S:Pr,Ce,F
| 510 | 4 | <0.1/<0.01 | 35000 | [29,85] | Gd2O2S:Tb
| 545 | 1×103 | - | 60000 | [29] | Gd2O2S:Eu
| 625 | 1×103 | 0.14%@3 ms | 60000 | [73,85-86] | Gd2O2S:Eu,Tb,Ce,Ca
| 600 | - | 0.18%@30 ms | 62000 | [87] |
|
Table 3. Scintillation property of GOS ceramics doped with different rare earth ions
Isotope | Reaction | Cross-section of thermal neutron adsorption/m2 | Natural abundance/% | Ref. |
---|
6Li
| 3H, 4He
| 9.1×10-26 | 7.5 | [96-97] | 10B
| α, γ, 7Li
| 3.83×10-25 | 19.9 | [97] | 113Cd
| γ, e- | 2.1×10-24 | 12.2 | [98] | 155Gd
| γ, e- | 6.09×10-24 | 14.7 | [96-97] | 157Gd
| γ, e- | 2.55×10-23 | 15.7 | [96-97] |
|
Table 4. Property of commonly used neutron imaging scintillation screen nuclides
Scintillator | Density/
(g·cm-3)
| λem/nm
| Light yield | α/βratio
| τ/ns
| Ref. |
---|
Neutron/(×103, ph·neu.-1)
| γ/(×103, ph·MeV-1)
| Neutron | γ |
---|
6Li-glass:Ce
| 2.5 | 395 | 6 | 4 | 0.3 | 70 | 70 | [99] | 6LiI:Eu
| 4.1 | 470 | 50 | 12 | 0.87 | 1.4×103 | 1.4×103 | [6,100] | 6LiF/ZnS:Ag
| 2.6 | 450 | 160 | 75 | 0.44 | 8×104 | 100 | [99,101] | LiYSiO4:Ce
| 3.8 | 410 | 10 | 10 | - | - | 3.8×104 | [102] | 6Li6Gd(11BO3)3:Ce
| 3.5 | 385, 415 | 40 | 25 | 0.32 | - | 200,800 | [103] | Cs26LiYCl6:Ce
| 3.3 | 380 | 70 | 22 | 0.66 | 100,103 | 100,103 | [6,99] |
|
Table 5. Inorganic scintillators used in neutron imaging and their properties
Scintillator | Density/(g·cm-3)
| Thickness to
stop 99%*/mm
| λem/nm
| Light yield/
(ph·MeV-1)
| Decay time/μs | Afterglow/(% after
3 ms/100 ms)
| Ref. |
---|
CsI:Tl | 4.51 | 6.8 | 550 | 66000 | 1.22 | >2/0.3 | [16] | Bi4Ge3O12 | 7.13 | - | 480 | 9000 | 0.30 | 0.005%@3 ms | [29] | CdWO4 | 7.9 | 2.4 | 495 | 20000 | 5.00 | <0.1/0.02 | [16,29] | (Y,Gd)2O3:Eu,Pr
| 5.9 | 6.1 | 610 | 42000 | 1000 | 4.9/<0.01 | [114] | Gd2O2S:Pr,Ce,F
| 7.3 | 2.9 | 510 | 35000 | 4 | <0.1/<0.01 | [29,85,115] | Gd3(Ga,Al)2O12:Ce
| 6.2 | - | 540 | 58000 | 0.09-0.17 | <0.01%@20 ms | [40] |
|
Table 6. Inorganic scintillators for medical imaging and their properties
Manufacturer | λem/nm
| Light yield/(ph·MeV-1)
| Decay time/μs | Afterglow | Ref. |
---|
Siemens (Germany) | 512 | 50000 | 3 | 0.01%@2.5-4 ms | [29,117] | Philips (Netherlands) | 514 | 40000 | 3 | 0.02%@3 ms | [118] | Toshiba (Japan) | 512 | 36000 | 3 | 0.08%@10 ms | [116] | Hitachi (Japan) | 512 | 42000 | 3 | 0.001%@300 ms | [119] | Iray (China) | 510 | 27000 | 3 | 0.1%@3 ms | [120] |
|
Table 7. Performance of GOS:Pr,Ce(F) scintillation ceramics prepared in the major companies abroad and at home