Abstract
1. Introduction
Because of the rapid developments in information technologies, massive amounts of data need to be efficiently stored and processed. However, the traditional computing hardware and memories have been approaching their limits under the current technologies. The human brain shows an absolute advantage over modern computers due to its highly parallel computation and ultralow power consumption[
To date, various materials have been utilized to fabricate memristors, including metal oxides[
This review is organized as follows: Section 2 gives a brief definition and working principles of memristors. Section 3 gives a brief introduction to HPs. In Section 4, recent advances in HP memristors are reviewed. In Section 5, the fabrication methods of HP-based memristors devices and arrays are reviewed. Finally, some challenges and perspectives for the development of HP-based memristors are presented in Section 6.
2. Memristors
Memristor is considered to be the fourth basic circuit element in addition to resistor, capacitor, and inductor. The concept was proposed by Chua in 1971. It is a circuit device with a relationship between magnetic flux and charge, as shown in Fig. 1(a)[
Figure 1.(Color online) (a) Four basic circuit elements: resistor, capacitor, inductor and memristor. Reprinted from Ref. [
Memristor devices can demonstrate different memristive characteristics according to different mechanisms by applying an external electric field, which can be divided into abrupt changes (Fig. 1(d)) and gradual changes (Fig. 1(e))[
To understand the memristive characteristics of a memristor, it is necessary to study its mechanism. Firstly, the physical mechanism of the memristor is introduced in detail. There are two main types of physical mechanisms: formation and rupture of conductive filaments (CF) and interface types[
3. Halide perovskites
3.1. Structure
Perovskite material is a compound with ABX3 crystal type[
Figure 2.(Color online) (a) Atomic structure diagram of perovskite. Reprinted from Ref. [
3.2. Properties
HPs have widely used active layer materials in the field of optoelectronics, such as light-emitting diodes, and photodetectors. In previous reports, HPs have become a hot topic in solar cell research because the power conversion efficiency has rapidly increased by more than 20%, and the precursors in solution have simple processability[
The HP material is usually expressed as ABX3, where A and B can be replaced by various elements so that the properties of HPs can be tailored, as shown in Fig. 3. Firstly, the most important characteristics of HPs are the ABG and variable structure. Xiao et al. reported an article on the structural stability and optical properties of CsPb2Br5 with a two-dimensional (2D) layer structure under high pressure[
Figure 3.(Color online) Properties of halide perovskites. (a) Tunable bandgap. Reprinted from Ref. [
4. Halide perovskite memristors
4.1. Electrical memristors
Memristors are promising candidates for the establishment of synaptic devices in neuromorphic systems due to their strong expandability, simple structure, and fast switching speed. At the same time, they are expected to construct flexible and implantable artificial neuromorphic systems due to their excellent mechanical and biological characteristics[
In electrical memristors, the most critical properties are switching speed, durability, retention, and power consumption. HP materials show excellent memristive properties, such as high Ron/Roff ratios and low switching voltages. In 2019, Park et al. reported a lead-free perovskite-based material (MA3Sb2Br9 (MA = CH3NH3)) for the resistive conversion of memristors and neuromorphic computing with low energy consumption[
Figure 4.(Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of Ag/PMMA/MA3Sb2Br9/ITO device structure. (b) Crystal structure of MA3Sb2Br9. (c) Cross-sectional SEM image. (d)
With fast switching speed, high Ron/Roff ratio, durability (103 cycles are the minimum standard), low power consumption and tiny size (3D stack and 10 nm or less as the standard) are key for the practical non-volatile memory applications[
Another important feature of memristors is that it can simulate biological synapses and prepare synaptic devices with biomimetic functions. Park et al. simulated the EPSC, inhibitory postsynaptic current, LTP, long-term depression (LTD), and STDP using a device made of MA3Sb2Br9[
Figure 5.(Color online) STDP for OTP synaptic devices. (a) Schematic representation of biological synapses. (b, f) Asymmetric Hebbian rules. (c, g) Asymmetric anti-Hebbian rules. (d, h) Symmetrical Hebbian rules. (e, i) Symmetrical anti-Hebbian rules. Reprinted from Ref. [
4.2. Photonic memristors
With the gradual failure of Moore's Law and the limitations of von Neumann's architecture, a new theory and structure are urgently needed. Photonic computing and many revolutionary computing technologies, including photonic memristors, were used to supersede conventional approaches. Photonic computing uses on-chip optical interconnects instead of wires that connect memories and central processing units (CPU)[
Memristors have powerful functions in information storage and neuromorphic computing applications. Recently, OHP has attracted increasing attention as a promising material for memristors. In particular, their ion-electron conductivity combined with photosensitivity provides OHP with the opportunity to demonstrate novel functions, such as synaptic function of light and optical erasure memory[
Figure 6.(Color online) (a)
In biological systems, light can be used to regulate neural and synaptic functions, such as activated/inactivated photosensitizing proteins and ion channels. These are considered ligands for optogenetics. Compared with traditional chemical methods, light has a higher spatiotemporal resolution. Inspired by optogenetics, photonic memristors have proposed an effective way to regulate synaptic plasticity for future neuromorphic computing[
Figure 7.(Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of PPF measurement. (b) PPF ratios measured at different illumination intensities (0 to 0.38
5. Fabrication methods
Perovskite materials were first considered to be an alternative material for solar cells. They have obvious advantages in conversion efficiency, and their manufacturing process is relatively simple[
Photolithography is the core of semiconductor technology and is essential in the fabrication of microstructures and nanostructures. However, it is essential to use water as a solvent in photolithography. Water will dissolve the perovskite material and avoid its deposition on the substrate. Based on such difficulties, Cheng et al. successfully prepared a MAPbI3 photodetector and a CsPbBr3 memristor with the aid of a parylene as a waterproof layer of a perovskite material[
Figure 8.(Color online) (a) Processing metal halide perovskites with semiconductor technologies. (b) Optical photographs of MAPbI3 and CsPbBr3 under parylene thin layers before and after water immersion. (c) 3D schematic of the memristor structure. (d) Optical micrograph of the fabricated CsPbBr3-based memristor; the scale bar is 10
Different functional structures are fabricated in semiconductor devices to adjust the interval of charge carriers and enhance light capture, thereby optimizing the optical parameters of the device. Perovskite obtains enhanced optical and electrical properties through the advantages of patterning technology. Recently, due to the continuous deep research of perovskite materials in the field of optoelectronics, patterning technology for processing perovskite has begun to develop again. Zhu et al. reported a review article detailing excellent patterning methods based on perovskites[
Figure 9.(Color online) (a) Schematic diagram of preparing a perovskite microplate array on a substrate. (b–d) Optical images of growth after the substrate was seeded for 1 minute and 2 minutes. Reprinted from Ref. [
Microcontact printing (MicroCP) method. So far, many researchers have optimized perovskite growth processes, such as solvent annealing processes[
Figure 10.(Color online) Morphology of solution on (a) isotropic substrate and (b) anisotropic MicroCP substrate with –NH2. (c) High-speed camera observation and SEM images of the perovskite transformation process. Reprinted from Ref. [
6. Conclusion and outlook
HPs have become one of the most extensively investigated optoelectronic materials due to their unparalleled performance in optoelectronics. In addition to optoelectronics, they could be applied to memristor devices due to their exotic properties such as fast carrier and ion transport, majority carrier control, high optical absorption coefficient, and tunable bandgap. The rapid development of HP-based memristors indicates that HP materials are promising for memristor applications due to the novel structures and remarkable properties. Because HPs can be easily synthesized on almost any substrate, they are suitable for monolithic integration with silicon CMOS-integrated circuits, which will provide a chance to integrate nanoscale HP-based memristors with CMOS electronic circuits for information storage and neuromorphic computing applications.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful for the financial support from the National Key Research and Development Program of China (Grant Nos. 2018YFA0209000, 2017YFB0403603), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 61904173, 61634006, 61675191, 61674050, 61874158), the Hundred Persons Plan of Hebei Province (Grant No. E2018050004, E2018050003), the Supporting Plan for 100 Excellent Innovative Talents in Colleges and Universities of Hebei Province (SLRC2019018).
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