Abstract
1. Introduction
With dramatical growth of the global energy demand and consumption, there is a urgent need to utilize clean and renewable energy resources, such as solar energy[
Among the emerging materials, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) have gained considerable attention and exhibited remarkable superiorities over the conventional materials for energy conversion and storage[
Considering that properties of composites are mainly related to the kinds of components and the interconnections among separated components, the fundamental principle of construction is vital for MOF-based composites. As shown in Scheme 1, MOF-based composites can be generally divided into two strategies according to the working modes during energy conversion and storage processes: (1) MOFs with assistant components, (2) MOFs with other function components. For the former one, MOFs possess the main functions within the composites, while the other components will not directly participate the energy conversion and storage, but can assist MOFs for full utilizations by adjusting related properties; as for the latter one, MOFs and the other components all join in energy conversion and storage simultaneously.
Figure 1.(Color online) Design principle of MOF-based composites.
In this review, we present a deep discussion on the design principle of MOF-based composites from the viewpoint of the intrinsic relationships among various components. Then, MOF-based composites for energy conversion and storage, such as catalysis[
2. Design principle of MOF-based composites
Tracing the previous progress, we focus on the progress of MOF-based composites in catalysis, supercapacitor and ion battery. According to relationships among various components within composites, MOF-based composites can be classified into two working modes in Scheme 1: MOFs with assistant components and MOFs with other function components.
The design of MOF-based composites with assistant components is a design strategy where the performance of MOFs is reinforced by the secondary component to improve the overall performance. In the composites, MOFs play a dominant role, and the other component has auxiliary effect which is denoted as assistant components. And the assistant components do not directly join all the physical process and chemical reactions of energy conversion and storage. For instance, the photosensitized mechanism to extend the absorption of photons can achieve wide spectral response[
So as to the second working mode of MOFs composites, the other function components is designed to achieve cooperative effects, where the improvements of comprehensive performance is attributed to the comprehensive actions of different components. Generally, each component remains the capability of energy conversion or storage and directly participates in the related steps while improving performance in the composites. For example, regulating electronic states of noble metal/MOF composites is able to facilitate charge separation and transfer to improve performance for energy conversion[
Such a design principle, which can acquire the synergistic effects based on integration the advantages of different components, will contribute to illuminate the correlations between the intrinsic relationships of different components and properties of energy conversion and storage. And the further instructions will be elaborated in the following sections using the detailed application of energy conversion and storage.
3. MOFs with assistant components
3.1. Catalysis
According to the energy source of catalytic reactions, catalysis can be divided into photocatalysis, electrocatalysis, photoelectrocatalysis and so on[
Light harvesting is the first step of photocatalysis or photoelectrocatalysis, which determines the basis for the subsequent energy conversion. Thus, one of the limitations to increase the efficiency of energy conversion process is insufficient photo-response to visible light or the unsatisfactory activity under solar-light exposure. This downside of MOFs can be ameliorated with the assistant components such as dye and upconversion materials[
Figure 2.(Color online) Typical examples of MOFs with assistance components for supercapacitor. (a) Schematic diagram of Na-Zn-MOF/rGO. (b) The cyclic voltammograms (CV) collected of Na-Zn-MOF/rGO electrode. (c) A comparison of the GCD curves of a bare GCE, 1-GCE, 2-GCE and 3-GCE. (d) Cycling stability analysis of Na-Zn-MOF/rGO over 4000 cycles(the left and right insets show the first and last 25 cycles)[
Additionally, electron–hole recombination associated with low internal charge separation efficiency of MOFs becomes the key issues of limitation of energy conversion efficiency. And the most organic ligands used for MOFs synthesis do not facilitate electron transfer. The introduction of conductive additives, such as metal, carbon materials, can contribute to carrier separation for photocatalysis or photoelectrocatalysis, leading to suppressing carrier recombination[
In addition, surface reaction rates have also been regarded as another limitation in catalysis[
3.2. Supercapacitor
Among various energy storage devices, supercapacitors have been widely studied owing to their fast charging/discharging, high power density and long cycle life[
Pristine MOFs with poor conductivity always have limited electrochemical performance. In order to full achieve the theoretical capacity of active materials, researchers have tried to introduce conductive materials as assistant components, such as carbon, metals materials[
Figure 3.(Color online) Typical examples of MOFs with assistance components for ion battery. (a) Schematic representation of the preparation process of Al-MOF/GO composite. (b) Proposed Li+ ions insertion-extraction process into or from Al-MOF. (c) Cycling performance and coulombic efficiency of Al-MOF and AMG at a current density of 100 mA/g. (d) The rate capability of Al-MOF and AMG[
So far, various conductive MOFs have been reported by linking fully conjugated organic linkers to improve electrochemical performance[
Besides, stability is one of the most essential parameter for supercapacitor[
3.3. Ion battery
Generally, ion batteries like Li ion battery, Na ion battery and K ion battery, etc., have higher energy density compared with supercapacitors, but their lower power density is insufficient for practical applications[
MOF-based electrodes usually exhibit poor rate capacities owing to their low conductivity. Moreover, the high surface area and porosity of MOF materials may lead to low initial Coulombic efficiency and low tap density. Combining MOFs with conductive agents such as carbon materials, conducting polymer and metal materials, has been used to circumvent these issues[
Figure 4.(Color online) Typical examples of MOFs with function components for catalysis. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis of NH2-UiO-66/TpPa-1-COF hybrid material. (b) The photocatalytic H2 evolution activities. (c) The photocatalytic stability of NH2-UiO-66/TpPa-1-COF (4 : 6). (d) Mechanism schematic of NH2-UiO-66/TpPa-1-COF (4 : 6) hybrid material[
In addition, the open metal sites in the MOFs provide an effective route to modulate the transport of ions as separators[
4. MOFs with other function components
4.1. Catalysis
With regard to ‘MOFs with other function components’, the other function components hold the ability of catalysis like MOFs. Meanwhile, the incorporation of different function components can achieve synergetic effect as shown in Table 4. The design principle, including band engineering, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) effect and surface reaction, will be illuminated as following.
For photocatalysis or photoelectrocatalysis, light absorption range can also be adjusted by band engineering for large light harvesting[
Figure 5.(Color online) Typical examples of MOFs with function components for catalysis. (a) Schematic illustration of PANI-ZIF-67. (b) Nyquist electrochemical impedance spectra of ZIF-67-CC and PANI-ZIF-67-CC. (c) Cyclic voltammograms collected of PANI-ZIF-67-CC electrode at different scan rate in 3 M KCl. (d) Cycling performance of the solid-state SC device measured at 0.1 mA/cm2 for 2000 cycles[
Another solution based on SPR effect, such as the integration of noble metal into MOFs, is another effective way to accelerate photocatalysis or photoelectrocatalysis reaction[
Additionally, MOF with other function components can also facilitate surface reactions via the synergy of multiple active sites, which can increase the lifetime of the electrons by many orders of magnitude in catalysis[
4.2. Supercapacitor
In order to find the solution to improve energy density, MOFs combining with electroactive materials of high pseudocapacitance have received wide attention, and the composites can realize synergetic effect of multi-functionalities. Based on different charging/discharging mechanism, MOFs with other function components have been used to acquire efficient supercapacitors. Typical MOF-based composites for supercapacitor are summarized in Table 5.
The introduction of conductive polymer is a choice to improve supercapacitor performance due to their low cost, high electrical conductivity and satisfactory specific capacitance[
Figure 6.(Color online) Typical examples of MOFs with function components for catalysis. (a) Schematic illustration of the synthetic process of CuS (
Additionally, introducing transition metal compounds onto the surface of MOFs can also optimize active sites by modulating the surrounding chemical environment of MOF surface to promote surface redox reactions[
4.3. Ion battery
Integrating electrochemically active components within MOFs can directly enhance the capacity by taking the contributions of other function components. Each component within the composites serves simultaneously as function components and further achieves the synergy because of the strong interconnection among these components[
Electrodes materials are the key and core constituents within ion battery[
For composite separators, MOFs suffered from gradual deterioration and was unable to retain soluble polysulfides after long-term cycling[
5. Summary and perspective
MOFs exhibit impressive physicochemical properties and unique fancy owing to diversity of the organic linkers and the metal nodes, regular and tunable pore structure, and chemical tunability. Hence, MOF-based composites have attracted intensive attention and yielded excellent performance for energy conversion and storage. In this review, we have summarized recent progress and typical development strategies of MOF-based composites for energy conversion and storage such as catalysis, supercapacitor, and ion battery. Moreover, we present the design principle from the viewpoint of the intrinsic relationships among different components and properties of energy conversion and storage, including two working modes: MOFs with assistant the components and MOFs with other function components. For ‘MOFs with assistant the components’ mode, MOFs possess the main function in the composites, while the other components will not directly participate the energy conversion and storage, but can assist MOFs for full utilizations by adjusting related properties; For ‘MOFs with other function components’ mode, all MOFs and the other components join energy conversion and storage simultaneously.
Despite these great achievements, there are still some foreseeable challenges in large-scale applications. (1) Although the addition of conductive materials can mitigate the impacts of poor electrical conductivity, the overall resistance of MOF-based composites is still high. Adjusting ligands of MOFs endow tunable electronic structure to overcome this drawback. Similarly, combining molecular design within composites will contribute more possibilities to optimizing the final energy conversion and storage. (2) The precise control of composite proportion and coordination environment is another inevitable challenge. Direct insight into targeted active sites in practical applications is still undefined, which is significant to push further fundamental understandings towards synergies among different components in the MOF-based composites.
Recently, rational compositional design of MOF-derived materials based on judicious selection of MOF precursors and controlled thermal/chemical conversion processes has also drawn great attention[
Although there are still many challenges, it is believed that more progresses of MOF-based composites, based on the above design principle of two working modes, will be expected to maximize composite performance for energy conversion and storage in the near years. In addition, the MOF-based composites are encouraged to gain more achievement in new energy-related fields. Hence, this review aims to provide general design principle to further applications of MOF-based composites for energy conversion and storage. We keep looking forward to the beautiful future of MOF.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NNSFC grants 21707093).
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