Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
Quantum walks, the evolution with quantum coherence and ballistic transport properties [1–3], have in recent years become a remarkably versatile tool for quantum simulation of various physics and multidisciplinary problems [4–13]. Quantum simulation is to use the Hamiltonian matrix formed by a quantum system to simulate the Hamiltonian matrix in other target systems [4,5]. Manipulation on the quantum walk can be used to simulate quantum open systems [7–9,14,15], graph search [16], diffusive transport in non-Hermitian lattices [10], the Anderson localization [11,12], and topologically protected bound states [13], etc., rendering highly diverse transport properties. Now, quantum walks have been successfully demonstrated in various physical systems, such as trapped ions [17], a nuclear magnetic resonator [18], superconducting qubits [19], and photons [20–24], and the scale has risen to two-dimensional spaces with up to thousands of evolution paths in integrated photonics [25–27]. Therefore, the power for quantum simulation using quantum walk experiments continues growing.
Dynamic localization is a physics term first introduced to describe the suppression of particle evolution under an externally applied AC electric field [28]. For cold atoms [29], Bose–Einstein condensates [30], and photons [31], such phenomena of narrowed evolution wave packets have also been observed where the applied AC electric field is mimicked by either the shaken force in the optical lattice [30] or the periodical curvature in the photonic waveguide [31]. The suppressed evolution wave packets for electrons in an AC electric field and an analog for photons in a sinusoidally curved photonic lattice are illustrated in Fig. 1(a). Dynamic localization under certain lattice/waveguide geometry could even limit the evolution completely, i.e., particles localize in the original single waveguide in the one-dimensional waveguide array [30], or evolve in only one dimension of the two-dimensional waveguide array [32].
Figure 1.The schematic of dynamic localization in a photonic lattice. (a) The suppressed evolution wave packet for electrons in an AC electric field and an analog of suppressed evolution wave packet for photons in a sinusoidally curved photonic lattice. Cross section of (b) a one-dimensional waveguide array and (c) a two-dimensional hexagonal waveguide array. The detailed schematic for the part inside the white rectangles in (b) and (c) is shown in (d) and (e), respectively, where each waveguide is modulated into sinusoidal bending on the
The name of dynamic localization is reminiscent of another kind of localization, e.g., Anderson localization [33], but their principles differ dramatically. The former is related to the rotating vectors induced by the applied field [28,34] rather than the diffusive scattering for the latter [33]. Whereas, Anderson localization has been studied extensively in quantum simulation [11,12], simulating dynamic localization in different quantum systems remains as a simple demonstration, and its time-dependent transport properties have never been experimentally reported, partially due to previous challenges in generating lots of paths for long-time evolution. However, the transport property does matter for wide applications of dynamic localization, ranging from the anisotropy in electron mobility [34], the evolution in spin systems [35], and atom trapping in a two-level system [36], etc., to the generation of anisotropic transport for any originally isotropic material [28]. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the transport properties in dynamic localization.
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In this paper, we report on the experimental demonstration of dynamic localization employing quantum walks on both one-dimensional and hexagonal two-dimensional arrays by injecting heralded single photons into the sinusoidally curved photonic waveguides. We for the first time, to our knowledge, observe that the suppressed evolution wave packet shows ballistic transport behavior, suggesting that photonic evolution with dynamic localization still shows the nature of quantum walks. The experimental results for the one-dimensional scenario agree well with theoretical predictions by both the analytical electric-field calculation and the quantum walk approach. However, for hexagonal two-dimensional scenarios as the anisotropic effective couplings in all directions are not orthogonal and are mutually dependent, the analytical approach is severely challenging. On the other hand, we use the two-dimensional quantum walk approach to efficiently work out consistent transport properties with experiments by considering the anisotropic coupling coefficients in its Hamiltonian and calculating the probalility distribution. Therefore, we demonstrate quantum walks as a very useful tool to simulate the anisotropic transport in dynamic localization. Furthermore, we utilize a nearly complete dynamic localization to preserve the evolution packet that can create a flexible length of memory in the evolution path, demonstrating a promising application of dynamic localization for quantum information processing in integrated photonics.
2. MAIN
In our paper, we consider two array structures, the one-dimensional and hexagonal two-dimensional array with their cross sections shown in Figs. 1(b) and 1(c), respectively. For each structure, two categories of waveguides are prepared, the straight ones and the sinusoidally curved ones. The sinusoidal curvature, although not very clearly seen in the cross section due to its marginal size, does exist along the propagation direction and bends horizontally on the plane. The curvature has a period of 2 cm and an amplitude of 14.4 μm in the array with a waveguide spacing of 15 μm as shown in Figs. 1(d) and 1(e).
The dynamic localization of a charged particle moving under the sinusoidal driving field [28] and the quantum analogy in the photonic lattice [31,37,38] [Fig. 1(a)] can both be described by a Schrödinger equation with a periodic curvature along the evolution direction. By applying a discrete model of the tight-binding approximation, the total field is decomposed into a superposition of weakly overlapping modes of the individual waveguides and becomes a common coupled mode theory [37–39], which can be solved to get the probability distribution, and suggest the suppressed evolution packets when the AC field or lattice curvature exists. A derivation from the discrete-time Schrödinger equation to the differential wave equation is given in Appendix A.
Quantum walks can also be derived from such a discrete-time Schrödinger equation, but they are more commonly discussed directly in the context of the Hamiltonian matrix and coupling coefficients. From a quantum walk perspective, the wavefunction that evolves from an initial wavefunction satifies: , and the evolution profile can be obtained by the matrix exponential method when the Hamiltonian is known [25]. For photons propagating through coupled waveguide arrays, can be described as
For the sinusoidally curved array, the curvature causes the suppressed evolution packets that are equivalent to the reducing of the coupling coefficient. The effective coupling coefficient becomes [38]
In the experiment, we then inject a vertically polarized 780-nm heralded single-photon source (see Methods section) into the central waveguide of each array from one end of the photonic chip and capture the evolution pattern at the other end using an intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) camera. The measured light intensity patterns represent the probability distribution after certain propagation lengths. The evolution result from the theoretical quantum walk approach with and the experimental measurement are both plotted in Figs. 2(a)–2(f). Meanwhile, the variance as a common parameter to measure the transport properties is defined by
Figure 2.Photon evolution and transport properties for one-dimensional arrays. Probability distributions for (a)–(c) straight and (d)–(f) sinusoidally curved arrays. Each scenario has an experimental pattern shown in the upper row and a theoretical pattern using the quantum walk approach shown in the row below. The propagation lengths are 1.5 cm for (a) and (d), 3 cm for (b) and (e), and 4.5 cm for (c) and (f). (g) The variance against propagation length from the experimental pattern, theoretical quantum walk approach, and theoretical dynamic localization approach. Details about error bars on experimental results are given in Appendix
Meanwhile, the variance in the one-dimensional lattice has already been derived for dynamic localization [28,34], which is simply given by
When the dimension of photonic waveguide arrays increases to two, higher complexities are inevitably incurred. in Eq. (2) should be replaced by , the effective amplitude. can be calculated as , where is the angle between the coupling direction and the horizontal curvature direction. Therefore, allows for the anisotropic transport effect in the quantum walk approach. In Fig. 3(a), , , , and represent the four possible directions of the two coupled waveguides, namely, horizontal, 30° for a horizontal line, 60° for a horizontal line, and vertical, corresponding to an of , , , and , respectively. Besides, there are three types of waveguide spacings to be considered, namely, , , and . Taking both direction and waveguide spacing into consideration, this gives totally six different scenarios for effective coupling coefficients as have been marked in Fig. 3(a).
Figure 3.Photon evolution and transport properties for hexagonal two-dimensional arrays. (a) Schematic of the cross section of a hexagonal two-dimensional array with the effective anisotropic coupling coefficients and effective sinusoidal amplitude along different directions marked in the figure. Probability distributions for (b) straight and (c) sinusoidally curved hexagonal two-dimensional waveguide arrays. The propagation lengths for both (b) and (c) are 2.5 cm. (d) The variance against propagation length from the experimental pattern and theoretical quantum walk approach. Details about error bars on experimental results are given in Appendix
Now, in the hexagonal two-dimensional scenarios, the analytical dynamic localization approach suffers. Transferring from the one-dimensional analytics [28] to multidimensional transport requires the independent coupling in different directions [34]. However, this is not possible in the hexagonal structure shown in Fig. 3(a). The photon evolution is continuously varying among , , , and directions, which makes the transport in each direction never independent at any time. More explanation on why it is almost impossible to give the analytical solution to variance for the hexagonal two-dimensional scenario is given in Appendix D. On the other hand, using the quantum walk approach, we put the anisotropic coupling coefficient into the Hamiltonian and conveniently generate the two-dimensional evolution pattern using the exactly same matrix exponential method as in the one-dimensional scenario.
As demonstrated in Fig. 3(b), the experimental two-dimensional evolution pattern for the straight array is almost isotropic, but the evolution in the curved array in Fig. 3(c) is faster vertically than horizontally, making a rectangular shape of the pattern. The variance in different directions is presented in Fig. 3(d), suggesting the ballistic relationship for the evolution in both straight and curved arrays. It also demonstrates that the vertical variance always exceeds the horizontal variance for the curved arrays, which can be associated with the exemption of modulation in the vertical direction because and . However, it is worth noting that the vertical variances in the curved arrays remain lower than those in the straight arrays, owing to the complexity of waveguide coupling in two-dimensional arrays. The couplings in and directions are both to some extent suppressed, and although they did not point to the vertical direction directly, the evolution through these restrained paths inevitably influences the vertical pattern and variance. The quantum walk approach does not have to separately treat each directed coupling but calculates the profile as a whole, and this solves the evolution puzzle, which is, otherwise, overcomplicated using the analytical dynamic localization approach.
Furthermore, we demonstrate a potential application of dynamic localization for creating a memory function in quantum information processing. We prepare a one-dimensional array with specially manipulated parameters that make in Eq. (2) drop to nearly zero. As shown in Fig. 4(a), photons spread out in the straight array of 1.2 cm, whereas, almost localizing in the injection site in the curved array of the same length. For this chip of the 1.2-cm-long curved array, we measure the cross correlation and autocorrelation of the photon source before and after the chip [in Fig. 4(b)], both obtaining a Cauchy–Schwarz inequality violation by 1303 and 125 standard deviations, respectively. (See the details in Appendix E.) This demonstrates that dynamic localization still well preserves the nonclassical property in the integrated photonics. We use such a curved array as a building block to place it before and after a 2-cm-long straight array. Comparing with the evolution pattern for the straight array [Fig. 4(d)], the curved–straight array [Fig. 4(e)] well preserves the initial state in the input site. More interestingly, we show that the straight–curved array can preserve the spreadout wave packet as well [Fig. 4(f)]. Both the curved–straight and the straight–curved arrays yield similar variance with the straight-only array [Fig. 4(c)]. This is very meaningful, especially for the straight–curved scenario, which is rarely investigated since this shows that if we want a quantum walk to pause for a flexible length of time, we can just smoothly connect the straight array with a well-designed curved array that leads to dynamic localization. This can perform a very practical memory function in integrated photonics.
Figure 4.The nearly complete dynamic localization in integrated photonics. (a) Photons spread out in the 1.2-cm-long straight array, whereas, localizing in the injection site in the curved array of the same length. The straight and curved arrays have effective coupling coefficients of 0.15 and
3. DISCUSSION
In conclusion, we investigated the experimental single-photon distribution in sinusoidally curved arrays and measured the variances that suggested ballistic transport properties. We considered two theoretical approaches to analyzing variances. The first was an analytical solution as a function of the curvature parameters, which had already been derived for dynamic localization in the one-dimensional array. The other was to treat the evolution as a quantum walk process. It incorporated all anisotropic coupling coefficients in its Hamiltonian and gave the probability distribution by solving the Hamiltonian exponential as a whole, and the variance can then be numerically calculated from the probability distribution.
It turned out that both approaches worked well for the evolution in the one-dimensional array. However, for the hexagonal two-dimensional array because the anisotropic effective coupling in four directions was mutually dependent, it was infeasible to apply the analytical dynamic localization approach. On the other hand, the quantum walk approach conveniently and efficiently gave the variances that matched our experimental results very well. We had, thus, demonstrated a promising application of two-dimensional quantum walks in simulating dynamic localization. This was meaningful for quantum materials as it studied the prevalent anisotropic transport properties in materials.
From this paper, we also saw that the effective coupling coefficients caused by dynamic localization can be very flexibly manipulated by experimentally tuning different parameters, namely, the curvature amplitude , the longitudinal period , the waveguide spacing , the refractive index , and the wavelength . In recent years, there was a growing number of promising studies on quantum information sciences using integrated photonics [40–45]. We have demonstrated a nearly complete dynamic localization to create a memory function in integrated photonics, and it can be widely used to experimentally manipulate coupling coefficients for more Hamiltonian engineering tasks.
Furthermore, this paper demonstrated an inspiring example of mapping certain wave equations to quantum walks that can be experimentally implemented on a photonic chip. This approach can be well applied to simulating plenty more wave equations, for instance, the Aubry–André–Harper model [46], the Su–Schrieffer–Heeger model [43], and other models in topological photonics and condensed-matter physics. Our strong capacity in achieving a large-scale three-dimensional photonic chip demonstrated a promising potential for quantum simulation in a highly diverse regime.
4. METHODS
Acknowledgment
Acknowledgment. This research was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China, National Natural Science Foundation of China, Science and Technology Commission of Shanghai Municipality, and Shanghai Municipal Education Commission. X.-M.J. acknowledges additional support from a Shanghai talent program and support from Zhiyuan Innovative Research Center of Shanghai Jiao Tong University.
X.-M.J. conceived and supervised the project. H.T. designed the experiment. Z.F. prepared the samples. H.T., Z.-Y.S., T.-Y.W., and Z.F. conducted the experiment presented in Figs.
APPENDIX A: DERIVE THE COUPLED MODE DERIVATIVE EQUATION FROM THE DISCRETE-TIME SCHR?DINGER EQUATION
The movement of a charged particle under an AC driving field [
We apply a discrete model of the tight-binding approximation [
After substituting this expression into Eq. (
For the movement of a charged particle under an AC driving field, we can similarly derive the partial derivative equation with respect to time ,
It is worth noting that Eq. (
APPENDIX B: OBTAIN THE EFFECTIVE COUPLING COEFFICIENT
The suppressed evolution packets lead to an equivalent influence on the suppressed coupling coefficient, making an analogy to an effective coupling coefficient on the straight waveguide [
For a sinusoidal curvature profile , could be solved by the Bessel function of the first kind as shown in Eq. (
The variables (amplitude , longitudinal period , waveguide spacing , refractive index , and wavelength ) that influence the value of can all be experimentally tuned. Dynamic localization is a useful way to experimentally manipulate coupling coefficients to form designed Hamiltonian matrices.
APPENDIX C: DETAILS ABOUT THE ERROR BARS FOR EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this paper, we performed one experiment for each dot shown in Figs.
Therefore, we perform several evaluations of the background counts for each experimental dataset. For the experimental data on two-dimensional lattice, each dataset has pixels. We take the average count from a piece of pixels from the up-left corner, an average of pixels from the up-right corner from down-left and down-right, respectively, and an average of these four corners in a total of five evaluations. For experimental data on a one-dimensional lattice, each dataset has pixels. We take an average for a piece of pixels from the left, right, and both corners in a total of three evaluations. We then calculate the corresponding probability distributions and their variances, which show the transport property as defined in Eq. (
As the original Figs. Error Bars for the Variances from Experimental Results in Fig. Error Bars for the Variances from Experimental Results in Fig. Straight lattice Curved lattice 1.0 0.0247 0.2696 1.5 0.2232 0.4490 2.0 0.3183 0.2616 2.5 0.0506 0.1722 3.0 0.0119 1.0637 3.5 0.2134 2.7872 4.0 0.0648 0.1983 4.5 9.6076 0.3308 Straight_ Straight_ Curved_ Curved_ 1.0 0.2093 0.1869 0.4089 0.2664 1.5 2.0750 0.3057 2.4446 1.5323 2.0 3.0069 1.0274 3.4003 1.9128 2.5 0.1039 0.1272 2.1075 0.8895 3.0 0.3904 0.1215 1.6214 0.4763 3.5 1.2273 0.3511 2.0750 0.3057
APPENDIX D: EXPLAIN WHY IT IS DIFFICULT TO EXTEND THE ANALYTICAL APPROACH TO HEXAGONAL TWO-DIMENSIONAL SCENARIOS
The analytical expression for variance of the one-dimensional array has been given in Eq. (
For the sinusoidally curved array, can be as follows: . Then, Eq. (
Meanwhile, for the straight waveguide, the variance follows Ref. [
For the hexagonal two-dimensional array, the coupling could be in four directions , , , and . In each direction, in Eqs. (
Let us discuss the evolution for one certain direction, for instance, the horizontal direction . We investigate that influences [see Eq. (
However, the evolution in different directions is never independent. In fact, it is much more likely that photons couple to the nearest waveguide with a waveguide spacing of , which is along the direction, where becomes . This forms Path II as shown in Fig.
Figure 5.Different paths for evolution in the horizontal direction in a hexagonal two-dimensional array. The evolution Paths I–III are shown by arrows in orange, green, and blue, respectively.
Similarly, the evolution can also follow Path III that includes the coupling directions in and , and the waveguide spacing is always too,
The three paths are essentially caused due to the dependent coupling in different directions so that the evolution in each single direction (e.g., evolution in as discussed above) can be led by different paths. The method of studying each path separately and combining all paths with certain weights is not feasible because the weight for each of the three paths can hardly be measured, and, moreover, the evolution can even be any combination of Paths I–III, which is not separatable during its continuous evolution process.
APPENDIX E: MEASUREMENTS OF CROSS CORRELATION AND AUTOCORRELATION
The idler photons and signal photons are generated via type-II spontaneous parametric downconversion. We inject the idler photons and signal photons into the edge waveguide and the center waveguide, respectively. We select the waveguides in which photons will most probably exist under two kinds of photon input correspondingly. The cross correlation , which reflects the intensity relationship between two paths, is obtained by measuring the coincidence of the two paths of photons after the chip. The autocorrelation represents the intensity relationship between two paths that are yielded from the same light going through a balanced fiber beam splitter (BS). is measured by passing the exiting signal (idler) photons through a balanced fiber BS and measuring the coincidence of the two paths of the output photons with the idler (signal) photons ignored [
If the measurement is for classical fields, the following Cauchy–Schwarz inequality must be satisfied:
On the other hand, the quantum fields would always violate such a Cauchy–Schwarz inequality. We can use
For the photon source, is , and is () with the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality violated by 1303 standard deviations. For the photon exiting the curved array, is , and is () with the Cauchy–Schwarz inequality violated by 125 standard deviations.
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