Jiading Tian, Qirong Xiao, Dan Li, Zheng Zhang, Haoyu Yin, Ping Yan, Mali Gong. Fiber Fuse Damage Effect in Fiber Lasers: A Review[J]. Chinese Journal of Lasers, 2021, 48(15): 1501005

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- Chinese Journal of Lasers
- Vol. 48, Issue 15, 1501005 (2021)

Fig. 1. Pictures of the fiber fuse phenomenon. (a) The real-time fiber fuse propagation through a fiber coiled on a cylinder, recorded by a 240-frame-per-second camera,and the numbers in brackets are consecutive frames; (b) ongoing fiber fuse in a 3-kW fiber laser system
![Optical spectra of fiber fuse. (a) Data by D. P. Hand, et al.[5], which compares their measured spectra with theoretically derived blackbody spectra; (b) data by S. Todoroki[48] in similar comparison; (c) data by E. M. Dianov, et al.[50] comparing the measured spectra with theoretical blackbody spectra of 10500 K, 7900 K, and 4700 K; (d) data by F. Domingues, et al.[54]; (e) the color coordination by F. Domingues, et al.[54-55], which uses a color gamut to show the temperature of fiber fuse; (f) data by Y. Mizuno, et al.[44] obtained in polymer optical fibers and comparison with theoretical blackbody spectra of 4600 K, 3600 K, and 2600 K; (g) spectra measured before and during the fiber fuse, by the authors of this paper; (h) the spectrum obtained by using the data in Fig. 2(g)](/richHtml/zgjg/2021/48/15/1501005/img_2.jpg)
Fig. 2. Optical spectra of fiber fuse. (a) Data by D. P. Hand, et al.[5], which compares their measured spectra with theoretically derived blackbody spectra; (b) data by S. Todoroki[48] in similar comparison; (c) data by E. M. Dianov, et al.[50] comparing the measured spectra with theoretical blackbody spectra of 10500 K, 7900 K, and 4700 K; (d) data by F. Domingues, et al.[54]; (e) the color coordination by F. Domingues, et al.[54-55], which uses a color gamut to show the temperature of fiber fuse; (f) data by Y. Mizuno, et al.[44] obtained in polymer optical fibers and comparison with theoretical blackbody spectra of 4600 K, 3600 K, and 2600 K; (g) spectra measured before and during the fiber fuse, by the authors of this paper; (h) the spectrum obtained by using the data in Fig. 2 (g)
![Propagation speed of fiber fuse and the optical power (density) in the fibers. (a) Data collected from previous studies, by D. D. Davis, et al.[24]; (b) velocity measured by E. M. Dianov, et al.[50], the legend distinguishes two kinds of fibers, and the left-side vertical coordinates show temperature calculated by blackbody theory; (c) data from E. M. Dianov, et al. in a 3-kW-peak-power pulsed fiber laser[57]; (d) data from S. Jiang, et al., pictures from the left to the right show the results respectively in single-mode Ge-doped fiber, single-mode pure-silica fiber, and double-clad fiber[61]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 3. Propagation speed of fiber fuse and the optical power (density) in the fibers. (a) Data collected from previous studies, by D. D. Davis, et al.[24]; (b) velocity measured by E. M. Dianov, et al.[50], the legend distinguishes two kinds of fibers, and the left-side vertical coordinates show temperature calculated by blackbody theory; (c) data from E. M. Dianov, et al. in a 3-kW-peak-power pulsed fiber laser[57]; (d) data from S. Jiang, et al., pictures from the left to the right show the results respectively in single-mode Ge-doped fiber, single-mode pure-silica fiber, and double-clad fiber[61]
![In-fiber microcavities generated by fiber fuse. (a) The schematic evolutionary process of the generation of in-fiber microcavities during fiber fuse[67]; data from (b) S. Todoroki[67], (c) R. Kashyap, et al.[2], (d) Atkins, et al.[62], (e) Dianov’s team[57] in a 3-kW-peak-power pulsed fiber laser, (f) Y. Mizuno, et al. in polymer fibers[44], (g) H. Zhang, et al.[36], (h) the authors of this paper[37] under 350, 413, 438, and 541 MW/cm2, respectively for the subplot and four pictures in the second row are irregular cavity in optical fiber under 438 MW/cm2, and (i) the authors of this paper[38] in a 3-kW-continuous-wave-power fiber laser; in graded-index fiber (j) the fiber fuse termination point, (k) the inversed bullet-shape microcavities, and (l) the long microcavities; (m) the fusion-splicing point after fiber fuse](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 4. In-fiber microcavities generated by fiber fuse. (a) The schematic evolutionary process of the generation of in-fiber microcavities during fiber fuse[67]; data from (b) S. Todoroki[67], (c) R. Kashyap, et al.[2], (d) Atkins, et al.[62], (e) Dianov’s team[57] in a 3-kW-peak-power pulsed fiber laser, (f) Y. Mizuno, et al. in polymer fibers[44], (g) H. Zhang, et al.[36], (h) the authors of this paper[37] under 350, 413, 438, and 541 MW/cm2, respectively for the subplot and four pictures in the second row are irregular cavity in optical fiber under 438 MW/cm2, and (i) the authors of this paper[38] in a 3-kW-continuous-wave-power fiber laser; in graded-index fiber (j) the fiber fuse termination point, (k) the inversed bullet-shape microcavities, and (l) the long microcavities; (m) the fusion-splicing point after fiber fuse
![Test results of fiber fused samples. (a) Stimulated Raman spectroscopy results from R. Kashyap[69], of which the peaks around 1555 cm-1 manifests existence of oxygen; (b) refractive-index (RI) profile measured in pre- and post-fiber fuse samples, by E. M. Dianov, et al.[71]; (c) electronic spin resonance (ESR) results, by the authors of this paper[70], show signs of defects in post-fiber-fuse samples; (d) Raman spectroscopy results[38], which shows peaks around 1555 cm-1; (e) RI profile results of pre- and post-fiber-fuse samples[38]; (f) ESR results showing three new g values 2.0257, 2.0248, and 2.0230[38]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 5. Test results of fiber fused samples. (a) Stimulated Raman spectroscopy results from R. Kashyap[69], of which the peaks around 1555 cm-1 manifests existence of oxygen; (b) refractive-index (RI) profile measured in pre- and post-fiber fuse samples, by E. M. Dianov, et al.[71]; (c) electronic spin resonance (ESR) results, by the authors of this paper[70], show signs of defects in post-fiber-fuse samples; (d) Raman spectroscopy results[38], which shows peaks around 1555 cm-1; (e) RI profile results of pre- and post-fiber-fuse samples[38]; (f) ESR results showing three new g values 2.0257, 2.0248, and 2.0230[38]
![Critical conditions for spontaneous initiation of fiber fuse[70]. (a) Experimental setup by the authors of this paper, we removed the coating layers of the fibers carefully, put the undamaged naked fibers into a tube furnace and heated it uniformly while applying constant input laser powers, and measured the conditions when fiber fuses were triggered; (b) data analysis showing that an energy with a unit of eV, being different for diverse fibers, dominates the conditions for each of the fibers; (c) critical temperatures and critical laser powers measured in four kinds of fibers; (d) micrographs of the positions of the initiations of fiber fuses](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 6. Critical conditions for spontaneous initiation of fiber fuse[70]. (a) Experimental setup by the authors of this paper, we removed the coating layers of the fibers carefully, put the undamaged naked fibers into a tube furnace and heated it uniformly while applying constant input laser powers, and measured the conditions when fiber fuses were triggered; (b) data analysis showing that an energy with a unit of eV, being different for diverse fibers, dominates the conditions for each of the fibers; (c) critical temperatures and critical laser powers measured in four kinds of fibers; (d) micrographs of the positions of the initiations of fiber fuses
![Some results from simulations. Results from (a) D. P. Hand, et al.[3,5], showing the propagation velocity of a thermal shockwave, induced by rapidly rising absorption (left-sided subplot), and its relation with the laser power and the geometrical features of the fibers (right-sided subplot), (b) Y. Shuto, et al.[51,77,82,90], showing a high-temperature point (up to 106 K) moving in the simulation grid (left column) and the physical models (right column), (c) S. I. Yakovlenko, et al.[86], showing the perceived formation of in-fiber voids (left-sided subplot, first row) and the relation between propagation velocity (left-sided subplot, second row) and laser power density (right-sided subplot, second row), and (d) A. Ankiewicz, et al.[91-92]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 7. Some results from simulations. Results from (a) D. P. Hand, et al.[3,5], showing the propagation velocity of a thermal shockwave, induced by rapidly rising absorption (left-sided subplot), and its relation with the laser power and the geometrical features of the fibers (right-sided subplot), (b) Y. Shuto, et al.[51,77,82,90], showing a high-temperature point (up to 106 K) moving in the simulation grid (left column) and the physical models (right column), (c) S. I. Yakovlenko, et al.[86], showing the perceived formation of in-fiber voids (left-sided subplot, first row) and the relation between propagation velocity (left-sided subplot, second row) and laser power density (right-sided subplot, second row), and (d) A. Ankiewicz, et al.[91-92]
![Experimental setups or systems for timely detection and monitoring of fiber fuses. (a) Detection by setting a photodiode by the fiber, the right-sided subplot shows current responses when fiber fuse passed through[100]; (b) detection by monitoring the variation of in-fiber backward-propagating optical power[93]; (c) detection and monitoring of fiber fuse using an optical frequency-domain reflectometry (OFDR), the right-sided columns showing signals before, during, and after the fiber fuse[61]; (d) detection and monitoring using a heterodyne system, right-sided subplots show the variation of velocity of fiber fuse in single-mode and few-mode fibers[52,99]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 8. Experimental setups or systems for timely detection and monitoring of fiber fuses. (a) Detection by setting a photodiode by the fiber, the right-sided subplot shows current responses when fiber fuse passed through[100]; (b) detection by monitoring the variation of in-fiber backward-propagating optical power[93]; (c) detection and monitoring of fiber fuse using an optical frequency-domain reflectometry (OFDR), the right-sided columns showing signals before, during, and after the fiber fuse[61]; (d) detection and monitoring using a heterodyne system, right-sided subplots show the variation of velocity of fiber fuse in single-mode and few-mode fibers[52,99]
![Methods and devices for stopping the propagation of fiber fuse. (a) An optical fuse made from TeO2[102], which can melt down when the in-fiber optical power exceeds certain thresholds, note that there were no fiber fuses being initiated in the original paper; (b) stopping fiber fuse propagation by tapered fibers[104], in which fiber fuses were found to stop propagating due to the decreased optical power density in the tapered region; effect of stopping fiber fuse propagation by (c) the use of tapered fibers[105-106], (d) a setup of fusion-splicing with hole-assisted fiber (HAF) [108], (e) shutting off the power source[100], and (f) fusion-splicing with multimode fibers[110]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 9. Methods and devices for stopping the propagation of fiber fuse. (a) An optical fuse made from Te , which can melt down when the in-fiber optical power exceeds certain thresholds, note that there were no fiber fuses being initiated in the original paper; (b) stopping fiber fuse propagation by tapered fibers[104], in which fiber fuses were found to stop propagating due to the decreased optical power density in the tapered region; effect of stopping fiber fuse propagation by (c) the use of tapered fibers[105-106], (d) a setup of fusion-splicing with hole-assisted fiber (HAF) [108], (e) shutting off the power source[100], and (f) fusion-splicing with multimode fibers[110]
![Using fiber fuse as a tool for fabricating in-fiber Fabry-Perot (F-P) microcavity and its sensing applications. The results that apply such methods for (a) strain sensor[125], (b) high-sensitivity temperature sensor with an over-600-μm-long F-P microcavity[126], (c) humidity sensor, with illustrating the steps of the whole process[127], (d) FBG interrogator[135], and (e) pressure sensor[128]; (f) a strain sensor[132] and (g) a curvature sensor[133], which use fiber fuses in polymer fibers as fabrication steps](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 10. Using fiber fuse as a tool for fabricating in-fiber Fabry-Perot (F-P) microcavity and its sensing applications. The results that apply such methods for (a) strain sensor[125], (b) high-sensitivity temperature sensor with an over-600-μm-long F-P microcavity[126], (c) humidity sensor, with illustrating the steps of the whole process[127], (d) FBG interrogator[135], and (e) pressure sensor[128]; (f) a strain sensor[132] and (g) a curvature sensor[133], which use fiber fuses in polymer fibers as fabrication steps
![Using the controlled initiation of fiber fuse to fabricate high-quality-factor (high-Q) in-fiber microcavity in a single-step manner. (a) Comparing the three fabrication strategies, that of the conventional methods (1), that in the previous studies which used fiber fuse as a step to obtain craves on fiber facets (2), and that of the authors of this paper, which proposed the one-step manner fabrication method[136]; (b) experimental setup for the one-step manner fabrication of in-fiber microcavities using fiber fuse[136]; (c) so-fabricated high-Q in-fiber microcavities observed under optical microscope[136]; (d) setup for testing the microcavities[136]; (e) transmission spectra of the microcavities, demonstration of strain sensing application with the Q factors of F-P resonances shown in the subplot[136]](/Images/icon/loading.gif)
Fig. 11. Using the controlled initiation of fiber fuse to fabricate high-quality-factor (high-Q) in-fiber microcavity in a single-step manner. (a) Comparing the three fabrication strategies, that of the conventional methods (1), that in the previous studies which used fiber fuse as a step to obtain craves on fiber facets (2), and that of the authors of this paper, which proposed the one-step manner fabrication method[136]; (b) experimental setup for the one-step manner fabrication of in-fiber microcavities using fiber fuse[136]; (c) so-fabricated high-Q in-fiber microcavities observed under optical microscope[136]; (d) setup for testing the microcavities[136]; (e) transmission spectra of the microcavities, demonstration of strain sensing application with the Q factors of F-P resonances shown in the subplot[136]

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