Abstract
1. Motivation
The last published review of high power lasers was conducted by Backus
The potential to interact with hot plasmas (greater than hundreds of electron volts) and probe the growth of instabilities and perturbations on timescales where hydrodynamic motion is small during the laser pulse (, where is the sound speed of the plasma, is the laser pulse length and is the laser wavelength) pushed the development of lasers with pulse durations of less than tens of picoseconds. The development and delivery of chirped pulse amplification (CPA)[
The production of quasi-coherent VUV/soft x-ray sources for biological imaging or plasma probing was investigated using ‘recombination pumping[
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The generation of quasi-coherent VUV/soft x-ray sources using high harmonics[
The concept of using the electric field associated with a laser driven plasma wave to accelerate electrons was given a major boost in the late 1970s when it was realized that GeV/cm fields could be potentially achieved[
Laser driven particle acceleration for applications such as ion driven fast ignition[
2. The road to petawatt class lasers
From the first demonstration of the laser, attempts have been made to increase the peak power and focused intensity in order to reach extreme conditions within the laboratory. Initial jumps in peak power came with the invention of Q-switching then mode locking, but progress slowed until the late 1980s and the dawn of CPA. The original use of CPA was in radar systems where short, powerful pulses that were beyond the capabilities of existing electrical circuits were needed. By stretching and amplifying the pulses prior to transmission, then compressing the reflected pulse, high peak powers within the amplifier circuitry could be avoided.
These ideas were first applied in a laser amplification scheme at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics at the University of Rochester, USA by Strickland and Mourou[
Due to the limitations of mode-locked lasers operating at 1064 nm, early high power/energy CPA lasers[
The development of Ti:sapphire mode-locked oscillators[
In the telecommunications industry, work was carried out on the use of prisms[
The development of amplifiers capable of supporting broad bandwidths is also required to realize high peak powers. Early systems relied entirely on dye or Nd:glass amplifiers. While dye lasers could support very large bandwidths, their short lifetimes and low saturation fluences severely limited the amount of energy that could be extracted. Neodymium based lasers, on the other hand, could provide a large amount of energy but would support only a limited bandwidth.
This led to the search for a new laser material that could provide the energy and bandwidth required to support high energy short pulses. Ti:sapphire[
3. Kilojoule glass systems
The first kilojoule glass system, or in fact the first laser configured to deliver a petawatt, was at the Nova Facility at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)[
Vulcan was the first petawatt class laser to be used by the international plasma physics community as a dedicated user facility. It is a high power Nd:glass laser[
The concept of using an OPCPA (optical parametric chirped pulse amplification) system as a seed for the front end of a high power Nd:glass laser system was first proposed by Ross[
In Asia, the first petawatt class laser was constructed as part of the high energy Nd:glass Gekko XII facility at Osaka University, Japan[
Titan[
An interesting development has been the coupling of petawatt beamlines to other sources, including ion beams and electron beams, and at Sandia National Laboratory coupled to the Z-pinch accelerator. The facility uses Beamlet[
The Texas Petawatt Laser[
The PHELIX (Petawatt High Energy Laser for heavy Ion eXperiments) laser[
The first petawatt laser in China was built as an auxiliary beamline to the Shenguang (Divine Light) II high energy facility at the Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics (SIOM)[
Orion is the latest facility to be built in the UK and became operational in April 2013[
4. Multi-kJ glass systems
The multi-kJ petawatt beamlines have all been primarily built to give advanced x-ray radiography capability to megajoule class long pulse interaction facilities. They typically operate at a pulsewidth of with multi-kJ energy outputs. The beamlines are also used for fast-ignition experiments and as high intensity interaction beams in their own right[
The first of the multi-kJ petawatt facilities to be operational was built at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) at the University of Rochester, USA. The laser is coupled with the well proven 30 kJ 60-beam long pulse Omega system. Omega EP (extended performance)[
Laser Mégajoule (LMJ) is currently being commissioned by the CEA at a research establishment near Bordeaux, France. Short pulse capability is being added to LMJ through the PETAL beamline. PETAL was originally designed and built to be part of LIL (Laser Integration Line), the LMJ prototype beamline which was modified to incorporate CPA operation[
Within the Gekko XII facility at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), University of Osaka, Japan the LFEX facility, shown in Figure
At LLNL, NIF ARC (Advanced Radiographic Capability)[
5. Megajoule facilities
The megajoule class lasers, although designed to operate in the nanosecond regime, are true petawatt class facilities due to their enormous scale. The multi-pass technology allows close packing of the beamlines at large aperture, producing a multi-pass stacked laser architecture. They were originally designed jointly between the USA and France for use on NIF and LMJ and are now replicated throughout the world.
NIF (National Ignition Facility)[
LMJ (Laser Mégajoule)[
SG-IV (SG stands for Shenguang – Divine Light)[
In Russia, there are plans to construct a megajoule facility UFL-2M[
6. Ti:sapphire lasers
The introduction of Ti:sapphire lasers provided the opportunity to produce high-repetition-rate systems operating at relatively short pulses, typically 30 fs, due to the inherent broad bandwidth of the lasing medium. The lasers operate at 800 nm and are typically pumped by frequency doubled Nd:glass lasers at 527 nm. In recent years, the number of petawatt class Ti:sapphire lasers has grown significantly. The main reason for this is because the sub-components of the systems and/or the whole laser system itself have become commercially available. This takes away the need for the facility to be sited at a national laboratory and allows smaller research groups to enter the arena. It is also evident that these lasers are now being used for more specific research areas.
The J-KAREN (JAEA-Kansai Advanced Relativistic Engineering) laser system constructed at the APRC (Advanced Photon Research Center), JAEA (Japan Atomic Energy Agency), Kyoto, Japan was the world’s first petawatt class Ti:sapphire facility and is shown in Figure
SILEX-I was constructed at the CAEP (Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics) Research Center of Laser Fusion, Mianyang, China. The facility produced 9 J pulses at 30 fs, giving an output power of 286 TW at a repetition rate of 0.15 Hz[
HERCULES (High Energy Repetitive CUos LasEr System) was constructed at the FOCUS Center and Center for Ultrafast Optical Science, University of Michigan, USA. In 2004 ultra-high intensities of up to in a 45 TW laser could be generated using wavefront correction and an F#0.6 off-axis parabola[
Astra-Gemini is a Ti:sapphire laser system[
The LASERIX facility[
A petawatt facility has been constructed at the Center of Femto-Science and Technology, Advanced Photonics Research Institute (APRI), Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), South Korea. The facility, shown in Figure
At the University of Quebec, the Advanced Laser Light Source (ALLS) is a commercial system built by Amplitude Technologies operating at 10 Hz delivering in excess of 150 TW[
The VEGA facility at the Center for Pulsed Lasers (CLPU) is based at the University of Salamanca, Spain. The facility has been operating with energies of 6 J at 30 fs giving output powers of 200 TW at a repetition rate of 10 Hz synchronized with a second 20 TW beamline. The system is currently being upgraded to provide a third beamline with amplifiers supplied by Amplitude Technologies to deliver 1 PW (30 J @ 30 fs) and will operate at a 1 Hz repetition rate[
Xtreme Light III (XL-III) operating at the Institute of Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOP CAS) at Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter, China generates 32 J in a 28 ps pulse delivering 1.16 PW to target at focused intensities (Ref. [
The BELLA (BErkeley Lab Laser Accelerator) project was launched in 2009 and is funded by the DOE for experiments on laser plasma acceleration at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA. BELLA, shown in Figure
The Diocles laser at the Extreme Light Laboratory, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, USA came online nominally at a power level of 100 TW and 10 Hz in 2008, and 1 PW at 0.1 Hz in 2012[
The Scarlet laser facility at Ohio State University, USA[
At SIOM the Qiangguang (Intense Light) Ti:S laser facility produces the highest powers ever achieved from a Ti:sapphire system (52 J @ 26 fs), giving output powers of 2 PW[
As part of the SLAC Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at Stanford University, USA the MEC (Materials in Extreme Conditions instrument) femtosecond laser system has been operational at the 25 TW level in conjunction with the LCLS coherent x-ray beam. It is currently being upgraded to 200 TW to be operational in 2015.
DRACO (Dresden laser acceleration source)[
Two very similar systems are being constructed in France and Germany: Apollon[
At the Centre for Advanced Laser Technologies INFLPR (National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics), Romania the CETAL petawatt laser (25 J in 25 fs) is currently being constructed[
200 TW (5 J, 20 fs, 5–10 Hz PULSAR laser) systems from Amplitude Technologies, France have also been installed or are being installed at the following establishments:
7. OPCPA systems
The OPCPA concept for large aperture systems was conceived at the Central Laser Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory by Ian Ross[
The first operational OPCPA system was developed using a pump beam derived from the Luch Facility at the Institute of Applied Physics, Russian Academy of Science, Nizhny Novgorod. The laser delivered 0.2 PW in 2006[
At SIOM (Shanghai Institute for Optics and Fine Mechanics), China the Qiangguang 10 PW (Intense Light) OPCPA system, shown in Figure
Within the Central Laser Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory there are plans to upgrade the Vulcan facility with full aperture OPCPA following on from the first demonstrations[
PALS (Prague Asterix Laser System) is an iodine photo-dissociation laser. The Asterix facility was first built at MPQ Garching and completed in 1995. Asterix was moved to Prague and has been operational since September 2000[
The Petawatt Field Synthesizer[
At the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE), University of Rochester, USA options are being investigated for an ultra-high energy OPCPA system using four OMEGA EP beamlines. The project is called OPAL[
A similar planned project to that of ELI at the Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Nizhny Novgorod is the XCELS (Exawatt Centre for Extreme Light Studies). This megascience project in Russia is to produce an exawatt laser system for fundamental science. The system will use combined 15 PW OPCPA beamlines to reach [
8. Diode pumped systems
Diode pumping has been identified as being on the critical path to the construction of ICF (inertial confinement fusion) power plants. Their high efficiency and low thermal deposition in the amplifier media make diode pumped systems ideal candidates for these developments. As the technology is developed it is being used in existing facilities to increase the repetition rates of amplifiers, in particular in their front ends. There are also an increasing number of entirely diode pumped petawatt class laser systems either operational or planned in the next few years.
It is proposed to use the Mercury laser facility at LLNL, USA, a diode pumped Yb:S-FAP laser, to pump a Ti:S laser to generate powers at repetition rates of 10 Hz[
POLARIS (Petawatt Optical Laser Amplifier for Radiation Intensive experimentS) is based at the Helmholtz Institute Jena, Germany. It is designed as a fully diode pumped Yb:Glass petawatt class laser[
PEnELOPE (Petawatt, Energy-Efficient Laser for Optical Plasma Experiments) is a high-repetition-rate diode pumped laser using broadband Yb-doped glass/ under construction at the Helmholtz-Zentrum, Dresden-Rossendorf within the ELBE Centre for high power radiation sources[
9. The next generation
Facilities that are changing the landscape of Petawatt class facilities are the three pillars of ELI (European Light Infrastructure)[
During this review we have discussed stand alone flashlamp pumped petawatt class lasers and also the megajoule class lasers currently operational or under construction. The next generation of these ICF demonstration facilities will use diode pumped technology to dramatically increase the repetition rate of the lasers. This will be a giant step on the road to building a commercial power plant using this technology. Large programmes have been examining the options for these systems both in the USA and Europe[
Raman based plasma amplifiers have been the subject of speculation for many years[
Systems based around VECSELs (vertical external cavity emitting lasers) have rapidly increased in output power in recent years. Thin disc lasers are currently used at facilities such as PEnELOPE[
Femtosecond coherently combined fibre amplifiers have been demonstrated at the millijoule level[
10. Conclusion
From national laboratories to university departments, the petawatt laser has evolved to become one of the most important tools in the scientific toolkit for the study of matter in extreme states. The first petawatt lasers were built at national laboratories by adapting beamlines from fusion laser systems. Over the last 20 years, as technologies have advanced, these systems have come down in size and cost such that they are commercially available and within the reach of university physics departments.
In this paper, we have noted over 50 petawatt class lasers () that are operational, under construction or in the planning phase. These range from kJ and even multi-kJ high energy systems to high-repetition table-top femtosecond devices.
Petawatt lasers are now being constructed for specific applications in fields ranging from proton therapy for the treatment of cancer to simulation of astrophysical phenomena, and many more besides. The next generation of lasers will approach exawatt power levels and allow us to reach conditions beyond those that naturally occur in the universe.
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