
- High Power Laser Science and Engineering
- Vol. 3, Issue 1, 010000e3 (2015)
Abstract
1. Motivation
The last published review of high power lasers was conducted by Backus ns pulses and directly compressed using light pressure (
, where
is the intensity and
is the speed of light), spherical compression using laser driven ablation could achieve much higher pressures and densities[
The potential to interact with hot plasmas (greater than hundreds of electron volts) and probe the growth of instabilities and perturbations on timescales where hydrodynamic motion is small during the laser pulse (, where
is the sound speed of the plasma,
is the laser pulse length and
is the laser wavelength) pushed the development of lasers with pulse durations
of less than tens of picoseconds. The development and delivery of chirped pulse amplification (CPA)[
The production of quasi-coherent VUV/soft x-ray sources for biological imaging or plasma probing was investigated using ‘recombination pumping[terawatt pulses of
duration had been developed. Collisional excitation soft x-ray laser pumping using high (
kilojoule) energy, nanosecond pulses was first demonstrated at high gain with neon-like selenium[
The generation of quasi-coherent VUV/soft x-ray sources using high harmonics[ driving laser at 15.5 nm, using a 2.5 ps pulse focused to an intensity of
on a solid target[
intensities[
) can generate a pre-plasma which expands and dramatically changes the scale length of the interaction. The ability to control the scale length of the interaction[
The concept of using the electric field associated with a laser driven plasma wave to accelerate electrons was given a major boost in the late 1970s when it was realized that GeV/cm fields could be potentially achieved[ intensities, near mono-energetic beams of electrons were produced[
GeV energies can be created with petawatt class sub-50 fs Ti:sapphire drivers[
Laser driven particle acceleration for applications such as ion driven fast ignition[ protons) and medical purposes[
) of high energy (
) ions. In subsequent experiments using tens of terawatt drivers, it was demonstrated that improved efficiency could be achieved by reusing the laser driven electrons[
thick foils by
) at intensities of
, laser system contrasts of
were routinely required. Currently, the new contrast enhancing techniques described earlier will need to used in combination with enhanced picosecond cleaning schemes to achieve picosecond intensity contrasts of
, which are essential to explore new mechanisms[
.
2. The road to petawatt class lasers
From the first demonstration of the laser, attempts have been made to increase the peak power and focused intensity in order to reach extreme conditions within the laboratory. Initial jumps in peak power came with the invention of Q-switching then mode locking, but progress slowed until the late 1980s and the dawn of CPA. The original use of CPA was in radar systems where short, powerful pulses that were beyond the capabilities of existing electrical circuits were needed. By stretching and amplifying the pulses prior to transmission, then compressing the reflected pulse, high peak powers within the amplifier circuitry could be avoided.
These ideas were first applied in a laser amplification scheme at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics at the University of Rochester, USA by Strickland and Mourou[
Due to the limitations of mode-locked lasers operating at 1064 nm, early high power/energy CPA lasers[
The development of Ti:sapphire mode-locked oscillators[
In the telecommunications industry, work was carried out on the use of prisms[
The development of amplifiers capable of supporting broad bandwidths is also required to realize high peak powers. Early systems relied entirely on dye or Nd:glass amplifiers. While dye lasers could support very large bandwidths, their short lifetimes and low saturation fluences severely limited the amount of energy that could be extracted. Neodymium based lasers, on the other hand, could provide a large amount of energy but would support only a limited bandwidth.
This led to the search for a new laser material that could provide the energy and bandwidth required to support high energy short pulses. Ti:sapphire[
3. Kilojoule glass systems
The first kilojoule glass system, or in fact the first laser configured to deliver a petawatt, was at the Nova Facility at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)[. All of the basic building blocks used on later systems were deployed on Nova, including broad-bandwidth pulse generation, optical pulse stretching, pulse amplification, deformable mirror, pulse compression and reflective focusing.
Vulcan was the first petawatt class laser to be used by the international plasma physics community as a dedicated user facility. It is a high power Nd:glass laser[ (1053 nm @1 ns) long pulses combined with two synchronized short pulse beams and a separate target area with high energy petawatt capability (500 J in 500 fs) synchronized with a single long pulse beamline, shown in Figure
The concept of using an OPCPA (optical parametric chirped pulse amplification) system as a seed for the front end of a high power Nd:glass laser system was first proposed by Ross[
In Asia, the first petawatt class laser was constructed as part of the high energy Nd:glass Gekko XII facility at Osaka University, Japan[ with contrast levels of
.
Titan[
An interesting development has been the coupling of petawatt beamlines to other sources, including ion beams and electron beams, and at Sandia National Laboratory coupled to the Z-pinch accelerator. The facility uses Beamlet[
The Texas Petawatt Laser[ in mixed glass Nd:glass amplifiers. The first 64 mm rod is silicate with eight pass angular multiplexing then four pass through two pairs of phosphate disc amplifiers. The 1.1 PW beamline produces a bandwidth of 14.6 nm, delivering 186 J in 167 fs.
The PHELIX (Petawatt High Energy Laser for heavy Ion eXperiments) laser[
The first petawatt laser in China was built as an auxiliary beamline to the Shenguang (Divine Light) II high energy facility at the Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics (SIOM)[. A ninth beam of 4.5 kJ was commissioned and made operational in 2005 and subsequently converted to the SG-II-U PW beamline. SG-II-U also included the building of a separate 24 kJ,
, 3 ns eight-beam facility.
Orion is the latest facility to be built in the UK and became operational in April 2013[ with nanosecond contrast levels of
[
4. Multi-kJ glass systems
The multi-kJ petawatt beamlines have all been primarily built to give advanced x-ray radiography capability to megajoule class long pulse interaction facilities. They typically operate at a pulsewidth of with multi-kJ energy outputs. The beamlines are also used for fast-ignition experiments and as high intensity interaction beams in their own right[
The first of the multi-kJ petawatt facilities to be operational was built at the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE) at the University of Rochester, USA. The laser is coupled with the well proven 30 kJ 60-beam long pulse Omega system. Omega EP (extended performance)[. It has driven the development of high damage threshold multi-layer dielectric gratings and their use in tiled geometry.
Laser Mégajoule (LMJ) is currently being commissioned by the CEA at a research establishment near Bordeaux, France. Short pulse capability is being added to LMJ through the PETAL beamline. PETAL was originally designed and built to be part of LIL (Laser Integration Line), the LMJ prototype beamline which was modified to incorporate CPA operation[ it was decided to move the hardware into the LMJ facility where it will be used for high energy density physics and research on fast ignition. The beamline is specified to operate at 3.5 kJ and will be commissioned in 2016[
Within the Gekko XII facility at the Institute of Laser Engineering (ILE), University of Osaka, Japan the LFEX facility, shown in Figure segmented dielectric gratings. Commissioning started in 2005 and delivered petawatt operation in 2010[
in a 5 kJ beam in
, providing powers of
(although final specification is to deliver 10 kJ).
At LLNL, NIF ARC (Advanced Radiographic Capability)[
5. Megajoule facilities
The megajoule class lasers, although designed to operate in the nanosecond regime, are true petawatt class facilities due to their enormous scale. The multi-pass technology allows close packing of the beamlines at large aperture, producing a multi-pass stacked laser architecture. They were originally designed jointly between the USA and France for use on NIF and LMJ and are now replicated throughout the world.
NIF (National Ignition Facility)[ beams delivering 1.8 MJ in 3 ns @
(0.6 PW) configured for indirect beam drive. Figure
LMJ (Laser Mégajoule)[ aperture. Initially only 176 beams will be commissioned, delivering a total energy of 1.4 MJ @
with a maximum power of 400 TW. The first beamlines will be operational in 2016 with two quads, eight beams, delivering long pulse energy combined with the PETAL short pulse facility[
SG-IV (SG stands for Shenguang – Divine Light)[
In Russia, there are plans to construct a megajoule facility UFL-2M[ for ICF direct drive target illumination.
6. Ti:sapphire lasers
The introduction of Ti:sapphire lasers provided the opportunity to produce high-repetition-rate systems operating at relatively short pulses, typically 30 fs, due to the inherent broad bandwidth of the lasing medium. The lasers operate at 800 nm and are typically pumped by frequency doubled Nd:glass lasers at 527 nm. In recent years, the number of petawatt class Ti:sapphire lasers has grown significantly. The main reason for this is because the sub-components of the systems and/or the whole laser system itself have become commercially available. This takes away the need for the facility to be sited at a national laboratory and allows smaller research groups to enter the arena. It is also evident that these lasers are now being used for more specific research areas.
The J-KAREN (JAEA-Kansai Advanced Relativistic Engineering) laser system constructed at the APRC (Advanced Photon Research Center), JAEA (Japan Atomic Energy Agency), Kyoto, Japan was the world’s first petawatt class Ti:sapphire facility and is shown in Figure [
SILEX-I was constructed at the CAEP (Chinese Academy of Engineering Physics) Research Center of Laser Fusion, Mianyang, China. The facility produced 9 J pulses at 30 fs, giving an output power of 286 TW at a repetition rate of 0.15 Hz[ without the need for deformable mirror corrections.
HERCULES (High Energy Repetitive CUos LasEr System) was constructed at the FOCUS Center and Center for Ultrafast Optical Science, University of Michigan, USA. In 2004 ultra-high intensities of up to in a 45 TW laser could be generated using wavefront correction and an F#0.6 off-axis parabola[
.
Astra-Gemini is a Ti:sapphire laser system[ to target. Routine high contrast operation can be achieved with the use of a double plasma mirror assembly within the target chamber.
The LASERIX facility[
A petawatt facility has been constructed at the Center of Femto-Science and Technology, Advanced Photonics Research Institute (APRI), Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), South Korea. The facility, shown in Figure
At the University of Quebec, the Advanced Laser Light Source (ALLS) is a commercial system built by Amplitude Technologies operating at 10 Hz delivering in excess of 150 TW[
The VEGA facility at the Center for Pulsed Lasers (CLPU) is based at the University of Salamanca, Spain. The facility has been operating with energies of 6 J at 30 fs giving output powers of 200 TW at a repetition rate of 10 Hz synchronized with a second 20 TW beamline. The system is currently being upgraded to provide a third beamline with amplifiers supplied by Amplitude Technologies to deliver 1 PW (30 J @ 30 fs) and will operate at a 1 Hz repetition rate[
Xtreme Light III (XL-III) operating at the Institute of Physics of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (IOP CAS) at Beijing National Laboratory for Condensed Matter, China generates 32 J in a 28 ps pulse delivering 1.16 PW to target at focused intensities (Ref. [
@ 400 ps.
The BELLA (BErkeley Lab Laser Accelerator) project was launched in 2009 and is funded by the DOE for experiments on laser plasma acceleration at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, USA. BELLA, shown in Figure
The Diocles laser at the Extreme Light Laboratory, University of Nebraska – Lincoln, USA came online nominally at a power level of 100 TW and 10 Hz in 2008, and 1 PW at 0.1 Hz in 2012[
The Scarlet laser facility at Ohio State University, USA[
At SIOM the Qiangguang (Intense Light) Ti:S laser facility produces the highest powers ever achieved from a Ti:sapphire system (52 J @ 26 fs), giving output powers of 2 PW[ @ 100 ps.
As part of the SLAC Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) at Stanford University, USA the MEC (Materials in Extreme Conditions instrument) femtosecond laser system has been operational at the 25 TW level in conjunction with the LCLS coherent x-ray beam. It is currently being upgraded to 200 TW to be operational in 2015.
DRACO (Dresden laser acceleration source)[
Two very similar systems are being constructed in France and Germany: Apollon[
At the Centre for Advanced Laser Technologies INFLPR (National Institute for Laser, Plasma and Radiation Physics), Romania the CETAL petawatt laser (25 J in 25 fs) is currently being constructed[
200 TW (5 J, 20 fs, 5–10 Hz PULSAR laser) systems from Amplitude Technologies, France have also been installed or are being installed at the following establishments:
7. OPCPA systems
The OPCPA concept for large aperture systems was conceived at the Central Laser Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory by Ian Ross[.
The first operational OPCPA system was developed using a pump beam derived from the Luch Facility at the Institute of Applied Physics, Russian Academy of Science, Nizhny Novgorod. The laser delivered 0.2 PW in 2006[
At SIOM (Shanghai Institute for Optics and Fine Mechanics), China the Qiangguang 10 PW (Intense Light) OPCPA system, shown in Figure
Within the Central Laser Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory there are plans to upgrade the Vulcan facility with full aperture OPCPA following on from the first demonstrations[25 fs to deliver 20 PW[
PALS (Prague Asterix Laser System) is an iodine photo-dissociation laser. The Asterix facility was first built at MPQ Garching and completed in 1995. Asterix was moved to Prague and has been operational since September 2000[20 pm, making it unsuitable for direct short pulse operation. By frequency tripling the PALS beam it makes an ideal pump laser for an 800 nm seed. A design for a 1.4 PW interaction beam has been published[
The Petawatt Field Synthesizer[
At the Laboratory for Laser Energetics (LLE), University of Rochester, USA options are being investigated for an ultra-high energy OPCPA system using four OMEGA EP beamlines. The project is called OPAL[.
A similar planned project to that of ELI at the Institute of Applied Physics of the Russian Academy of Sciences in Nizhny Novgorod is the XCELS (Exawatt Centre for Extreme Light Studies). This megascience project in Russia is to produce an exawatt laser system for fundamental science. The system will use combined 15 PW OPCPA beamlines to reach [
8. Diode pumped systems
Diode pumping has been identified as being on the critical path to the construction of ICF (inertial confinement fusion) power plants. Their high efficiency and low thermal deposition in the amplifier media make diode pumped systems ideal candidates for these developments. As the technology is developed it is being used in existing facilities to increase the repetition rates of amplifiers, in particular in their front ends. There are also an increasing number of entirely diode pumped petawatt class laser systems either operational or planned in the next few years.
It is proposed to use the Mercury laser facility at LLNL, USA, a diode pumped Yb:S-FAP laser, to pump a Ti:S laser to generate powers at repetition rates of 10 Hz[
POLARIS (Petawatt Optical Laser Amplifier for Radiation Intensive experimentS) is based at the Helmholtz Institute Jena, Germany. It is designed as a fully diode pumped Yb:Glass petawatt class laser[10 nm. It is currently being upgraded from 4 J in 164 fs
30 TW to 1 PW with the commissioning of the final amplifier to deliver 150 J in 150 fs in 2016. The final amplifier of the facility is shown in Figure
PEnELOPE (Petawatt, Energy-Efficient Laser for Optical Plasma Experiments) is a high-repetition-rate diode pumped laser using broadband Yb-doped glass/ under construction at the Helmholtz-Zentrum, Dresden-Rossendorf within the ELBE Centre for high power radiation sources[
relevant to future cancer treatments. The facility, due to be commissioned in 2016, will deliver pulses of 150 J in 120 fs, giving
at
. PEnELOPE and POLARIS are both programmes belonging to the German Helmholtz Society.
9. The next generation
Facilities that are changing the landscape of Petawatt class facilities are the three pillars of ELI (European Light Infrastructure)[
During this review we have discussed stand alone flashlamp pumped petawatt class lasers and also the megajoule class lasers currently operational or under construction. The next generation of these ICF demonstration facilities will use diode pumped technology to dramatically increase the repetition rate of the lasers. This will be a giant step on the road to building a commercial power plant using this technology. Large programmes have been examining the options for these systems both in the USA and Europe[
Raman based plasma amplifiers have been the subject of speculation for many years[
Systems based around VECSELs (vertical external cavity emitting lasers) have rapidly increased in output power in recent years. Thin disc lasers are currently used at facilities such as PEnELOPE[
Femtosecond coherently combined fibre amplifiers have been demonstrated at the millijoule level[. This will potentially reach greater energies than are currently possible using conventional techniques in a vastly reducedfootprint.
10. Conclusion
From national laboratories to university departments, the petawatt laser has evolved to become one of the most important tools in the scientific toolkit for the study of matter in extreme states. The first petawatt lasers were built at national laboratories by adapting beamlines from fusion laser systems. Over the last 20 years, as technologies have advanced, these systems have come down in size and cost such that they are commercially available and within the reach of university physics departments.
In this paper, we have noted over 50 petawatt class lasers () that are operational, under construction or in the planning phase. These range from kJ and even multi-kJ high energy systems to high-repetition table-top femtosecond devices.
Petawatt lasers are now being constructed for specific applications in fields ranging from proton therapy for the treatment of cancer to simulation of astrophysical phenomena, and many more besides. The next generation of lasers will approach exawatt power levels and allow us to reach conditions beyond those that naturally occur in the universe.
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