Fig. 1. Applications of VLC in future networks.

Fig. 2. Promotion of blue and green LDs’ WPE in recent years. The data are from Refs. [22-27" target="_self" style="display: inline;">-27].

Fig. 3. WPE varies with wavelength. The data are from Refs. [22,26,27].

Fig. 4. Demonstration of different ways of forming a laser-based white light source.

Fig. 5. Phosphor materials used to generate white light. (a) Perovskite-based green phosphor with red phosphor^[57]. Copyright 2016 American Chemical Society. (b) Single crystal YAG:Ce phosphor^[52]. ©2016 Optica Publishing Group. (c) Metal–organic framework-based phosphor for WDM, reprinted with permission from Ref. [61]. Copyright 2023 American Chemical Society.

Fig. 6. A typical VLC lab testing system setup.

Fig. 7. (a) A high-power laser-based white light emitter; (b) the luminance distribution of the laser-based white light emitter at 1 m; (c) measured data transmission rate versus tilting angle at a transmission distance of 2 m.

Fig. 8. Challenges and possible solutions for the laser-based VLC system.

Table 1. Comparison of Illumination and Communication Performance of Laser-Based VLC Systems

Table 2. Comparison of LD-Based UWOC Performance in the Past Six Years