Fig. 1. Principe of line scanning hyperspectral imaging technology
[6] Fig. 2. Different data acquiring methods of hyperspectral imaging
[21] Fig. 3. Sketch map of the detecting progress with a push-broom underwater hyperspectral imaging detecting system
[31] Fig. 4. The intensity of downwelling irradiance(300 nm~2 500 nm) at different depth in the ocean
[32] Fig. 5. Two kinds of market oriented underwater hyperspectral imager products
Fig. 6. Common types of sensors used in underwater hyperspectral detecting system
Fig. 7. Relationships between different software in underwater hyperspectral detecting system
Fig. 8. Part functions of the underwater hyperspectral detecting software
Fig. 9. ENVI remoting data process software
Fig. 10. The working underwater hyperspectral imaging systems of NTU
[40] Fig. 11. The hyperspectral image shot by underwater hyperspectral detecting system at 2012 and its classification result
[40] Fig. 12. The hyperspectral image shotted by NTNU underwater hyperspectral detecting system using UHI-2 imager at 2016
[40] Fig. 13. False color image of underwater manganese nodules shotted by NTU underwater hyperspectral detecting system & classification result of the hyperspectral image
[13] Fig. 14. The underwater hyperspectral detecting system using a stationary platform developed by NTU
[14] Fig. 15. The false color image gotten by the underwater hyperspectral imaging system using stationary platform & classification result of the hyperspectral data
[14] Fig. 16. The shallow water hyperspectral detecting system developed by NTNU
[36] Fig. 17. The hyperspectral image shotted by the system mentioned above in shallow water and its classification result
[36] Fig. 18. Other applications developed by NTU & Ecotone AS
[11-12,15] Fig. 19. The hyperspectral detecting system developed by the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology
[35] Fig. 20. The false color image of underwater sediments & Chlorophyll concentration distribution gotten by inverting the hyperspectral data
[35] Fig. 21. The ‘HyperDiver’ underwater imaging detecting system developed by the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology
[17] Fig. 22. The hyperspectral data gotten by using the HyperDiver detecting system
[17] Fig. 23. The hyperspectral data gotten by Institute of Marine Sciences of Italy
[19] Fig. 24. The underwater hyperspectral imaging system based on filter wheel developed by Zhejiang University
[24] Fig. 25. The hyperspectral data gotten by using the filter wheel underwater hyperspectral imager mentioned above
[24] Fig. 26. The spectral data of underwater microplastic and its classification result by using SVM algorithm
[53] Fig. 27. The image taken at air、underwater and the corrected underwater image
[53] Fig. 28. The underwater hyperspectral imaging system based on P-G-P dispersion structure developed by Zhejiang University
[51] Fig. 29. The classification result of different algae's hyperspectral data by using PCA methods
[51] Fig. 30. The design result and real system of underwater hyperspectral imaging system developed by Ocean University of China
[38] Fig. 31. Hyperspectral image at different wavelengths and its spectral curve gotten by Ocean University of China
[38] Fig. 32. Sketch map of the effect on hyperspectral image by shaking the system in different directions
Method | Imaging efficiency | Spatial resolution | Spectral resolution | Anti-shake performance | Range of application |
---|
Point scanning | Low | Low | High | Poor | Unsuitable for underwater application | Line scanning | Relatively high | High | High | Relatively poor | Large-or small-scale underwater detection work | Staring | Relatively high | High | Relatively low | Relatively good | Small scale underwater detection work on a fixed point | Snapshot | High | The spatial resolution or spectral resolution need to be improved through computing methods | Good | Large-or small-scale underwater detection work (Have not been applied to underwater detection work) |
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Table 1. Various properties comparison of different hyperspectral imaging methods
Development agency | Platform type | Detection depth/m | Scanning range | Sensors type | Volume/weight |
---|
NTNU & Ecotone AS | Tripod | 5 | 260° | --- | Small | NTNU | Stationary platform with scanning structure (HyBIS RUV) | 3 530~ 3 660 | 2.3 m×1 m | Ultrashort baseline underwater acoustic positioning system | Relatively large | Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology | Stationary platform with scanning structure | ≤75 m | 1 m×1 m | --- | Relatively large | Ocean University of China | Mechanical turntable | --- | Depended on the motion range of the platform | --- | Small | Zhejiang University | Mechanical turntable | --- | Depended on the motion range of the platform | --- | Small | NTNU | ROV(KIEL6 000) | 4 200 m | Depended on the motion range of the platform | Ultrashort baseline underwater acoustic positioning system, DP system | 3.5 m×2.4 m×1.9 m/3 500 kg | NTNU | Unmanned surface vehicle (OTTER USV) | 1 m | Depended on the motion range of the platform | GPS, DP system | 200 cm×108 cm×81.5 cm/55 kg | NTNU | AUV(Kongsberg Maritime Hugin 3 000) | 2 350 m | Depended on the motion range of the platform | --- | 5.5 m×1.0 m(diameter)/1 400 kg | Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology | Diver operation | ≤50 m | Depended on the motion range of the platform | Photosynthetically active radiation sensor,Navigation information sensor,Chemical information measurement sensor (PH, Dissolved oxygen) | --/32 kg(air) |
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Table 2. Several kinds of platform used in underwater hyperspectral imaging detection
Dispersive element | Spectral resolution | Light efficiency | Dispersion linearity | Cost | Difficulty of Calibration | Volume and weight |
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Grating | High | Relatively low | Linear | Relatively low | Simple | Small | Prism | Relatively low | High | Nonlinear | Low | Complex | Relatively small | Filter wheel | Relatively low | Low | --- | High | Simple | Large |
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Table 3. Comparison of different dispersive elements
Development agency | Name of the system | Method | Spectral range/nm | Spectral resolution/nm | Spatial resolution/pixels |
---|
Ecotone AS | UHI-OV | Line scanning | 380~800 | 0.5~4 | 1 600~200 | Resonon | Pika II | Line scanning | 400~900 | 2.1 | 640 | Zhejiang University | --- | Line scanning (Prism-Grating-Prism structure) | 387~821 | 3.5 | 1 216 | Ocean University of China | --- | Line scanning (Prism-Grating-Prism structure) | 400~800 | 3 | 2048 | Zhejiang University | --- | Staring (Filter Wheel) | 400~700 | 10 | 1 392×1 040 | Zhejiang University | --- | Staring (Tunable liquid crystal filter) | 400~700 | 10 | 1 392×1 040 | Cubert Gmbh | U185 | Snapshot | 450~950 | 8@532 | 1 000×1 000 | Zhejiang University | --- | Tunable light source | 400~700/8 bands | 12.0~42.1 | --- |
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Table 4. Several kinds of hyperspectral imaging system used in research or commercialized
Specification | Value |
---|
Detector type | CCD | Detection depth | ≤1 000 m | Light source | Two halogen lamps | Power/W | 4.8 | Digitalizing/bit | 12 | Spectral range/nm | 380~800 | Spectral resolution/nm | 0.5~4 | Spatial resolution/pixels | 1 600×2 000 | Size/cm | 36×11(diameter) | Weight/kg | 4/0(air/water) |
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Table 5. Parameters and values of the UHI-1 system
Specification | Value |
---|
Detector type | CMOS | Detection depth/m | 1 000/2 000/6 000 | Light source | LED/LED、HID | Power/W | 60 | Digitalizing/bit | 16 | Spectral range/nm | 380~800 | Spectral resolution/nm | 0.5~4 | Spatial resolution/pixels | 1 600×2 000 | Size/cm | 50×15.8(diameter) | Weight/kg | 15/5(air/water) |
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Table 6. Parameters and values of the UHI-2 system
Specification | Value |
---|
Number of pixels | 1 392×1 040 | Pixel size/μm | 6.45 | Detection depth/m | ≤50 | Power/W | 5 | Frame/fps | 15 | Spectral range/nm | 400~700 | Spectral resolution/nm | 10 | Field of view/(°) | 10@f=50 mm | Time of channel changing/ms | 100 | Weight/kg | 23.2@Air |
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Table 7. Parameters and values of the spectral imager developed by Zhejiang University
Specification | Value |
---|
Number of pixels | 2 048×2 048 | Pixel size/μm | 4.8 | F# | 2.4 | Focal length/m | 22 | Power/W | 20 | Spectral range/nm | 400~800 | Spectral resolution/nm | 5 | Field of view/(°) | 11 | Frame rate/fps | ≤30 | Weight/kg | 10/1.2@air/water | Size/m | 0.4×0.15(diameter) |
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Table 8. Parameters and values of the hyperspectral imaging system developed by Ocean University of China