Fig. 1. Commercial optical positioning systems. (a) Polaris Vega optical positioning system (NDI©); (b) PST Base positioning system (PS-Tech©); (c) FP8000 positioning system (Stryker©); (d) FusionTrack 500 positioning system (Atracsys©); (e) AimPosition positioning system (Aimooe©); (f) RT MAX positioning system (Ariemedi©)

Fig. 2. Commercial electromagnetic positioning systems. (a) Aurora positioning system (NDI©); (b) VIPER positioning system (Polhemus©); (c) LIBERTY positioning system (Polhemus©)

Fig. 3. 3D structured light technology for surgical navigation. (a) Envision 3DTM image guidance system^[25]; (b) structured light camera (Sinovation©)

Fig. 4. Schematic diagram of optical probes. (a) Reflective sphere probe; (b) glass sphere probe; (c) reflective paste probe; (d) laser probe; (e) graphic coding probe

Fig. 5. Organ segmentation modeling results (EDDA IQQA®-3D). (a) 3D rendering of liver; (b) 3D rendering of aorta; (c) 3D rendering of lungs; (d) 3D rendering of kidneys

Fig. 6. Surgical planning results (BrainLab©). (a) Radiotherapy planning; (b) craniomaxillofacial surgical planning; (c) spinal surgery planning

Fig. 7. Illustration of in vitro biomarker fixation method. (a) Stereotactic frame (Leksell Sterotactic System®); (b) surgical implantation marker; (c) mold registration; (d) in vitro positioning marker frame (Mako SmartRobotics™)

Fig. 8. Weighted self-similarity structure vector (WSSV)-based MRI-US image registration^[94]. (a) Registration framework; (b) registration result

Fig. 9. Multimodal medical image fusion^[101]. (a) MRI image of patient 1; (b) PET image of patient 1; (c) MRI and PET fusion image of patient 1; (d) MRI image of patient 2; (e) SPECT image of patient 2; (f) MRI and SPECT fusion image of patient 2

Fig. 10. Importance-driven data fusion rendering^[103]. (a) Importance ranking; (b) hybrid rendering image on side view; (c) hybrid rendering image on front view

Fig. 11. Commercial neurosurgery surgical navigation systems. (a) Q navigation system (Stryker©); (b) StealthStation™ S8 surgical navigation system (Medtronic©); (c) neurosurgery surgical robot system (Remebot©); (d) neurosurgery surgical robot system (Sinovation©); (e) skull base surgical robot navigation system (Ariemedi©)

Fig. 12. Commercial craniomaxillofacial surgery navigation systems. (a) Yomi dental surgery robotic navigation system (Neocis©)^[105]; (b) dental implant robotic system (Yakerbot©)^[106]; (c) dental implant surgical navigation system (Dcarer©); (d) dental implant surgical navigation system (Remebot©); (e) AccuNavi-A maxillofacial prosthetic surgery navigation system (UEG©)

Fig. 13. Commercial orthopedic surgery navigation systems. (a) Holo Portal system (Surgalign©); (b) Q navigation system (Stryker©); (c) Point Kinguide system (Point Robotics Medtech©); (d) SkyWalker™ system (Microport©); (e) TianJi™ system (TINAVI©)

Fig. 14. Commercial percutaneous puncture navigation systems. (a) Micromate^TM (Interventional Systems©); (b) MAXIO (Perfint Healthcare©); (c) XACT (XACT Robotics©); (d) iSR'obot (Biobot©); (e) puncture navigation system (Jingmai©)

Fig. 15. Commercial vascular intervention navigation systems. (a) CorPath GRX surgical robot system (Corindus Vascular Robotics©); (b) R-One™ vascular interventional surgical robot system (Robocath©); (c) Alien vascular interventional surgical robot system (WeMed©); (d) Allvas vascular interventional surgical robot system (Operaterobot©)